mi nil
THE NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPAEDIA
SECOND EDITION
VOLUME IV
NEW YORK DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
1928
Copyright, 1902, 1904, 1905, 1906, 1907, 1909, 1911, 1912, 1914 BY DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
All rights reserved
Copyright, 1917, 1921, 1922 BY DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY,
A.U rights reserved
Printed an the U. S. A. Reference
18U1S
PHSSS, Iwo,. BINOHAMTON, N. Y, J. F. TAPLHY Co., LONO ISLAND OJTY, N, Y,
ILLUSTRATIONS IN VOLUME IV COLORED PLATES
FACING PAGB
BUTTERFLIES, American 228
CACTI 272
CALIFORNIA FLORA 330
CALIFORNIA SHIUTHH 334
CANIDJH •- Duo FAMILY 462
CKRKALS 788
MAPS
BURMA 184
CALIFORNIA 328
CANADA 414
C^APE OF GOOD HOPE, PROVINCE OF 494
CENTRAL AMERICA 774
ENGRAVINGS
BRYOPIIYTKS 78
BUFFALOES 114
BUNTINGS AND GJIOHBEAXS 158
BURNS, ROBERT 196
BITSTAKDH 214
BUTTKH MAKING 224
BUTTKKFLIKH AND MOTHS 230
BUTTER-MAKING MACHINERY 232
BUTTERNUT TREK 230
BYZANTINE ARCHITECTURE (Interior of the church of St. Sophia, Constantinople) 240
CABBAGE AND ALLIES 258
OEBAU, GAIUS JULIUS 282
CAGE BIRDS, Typical 288
CALABASH, etc 298
CAMELS AND LLAMAS 380
CAMELLIA, etc 382
CANALS — New York Barge Canal, Lock at Waterford 440
CANALS — New York Barge Canal, Locks at Oswego and Little Falls 447
CANALS — Panama Canal, Culebra Cut 448
CANALS — Panama Canal, Gatun Locks 449
CANALS — Sault Ste. Marie Canal 450
CANARY BIRDS 454
CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL 480
CABAVAGGIO ("The Entombment of Christ") ^. 516
CARLYLE, THOMAS 558
IV
FACINO PAGM
CARNATIONS, etc .............................. ^
CARNIVORES, American Minor ........................ ^70
CARPS AND THEIR EUROPEAN ALLIES ..................... ^
CASA GRANDE AND CLIFF DWELLINGS (American Prehistoric Dwellings) ..... (518
CASSOWARIES, etc .............................. &&
CATS, Wild ................................ 656
CATS ................................... 657
CATFISH ................................. 678
CATTLE, Dairy ............................... 694
CATTLE, Wild ............................... 695
CAVALRY ................................. 720
CAVALRY, U. S. Cavalryman and Equipment ................. 721
CAVIES, etc ................................. 732
CELLINI, BENVENUTO ("Perseus") ...................... 752
CEPHALOPODS ............................... 784
CEPHALOPODS ............................... 785
KEY TO PRONUNCIATION
For a full explanation of the various sounds indicated, see the KEY TO PRONUNCIATION in Vol. L
a a
a f e
e I
I "
u "
5 "
6 " 8 "
0 "
01 "
00 "
ou"
U "
* "
tt "
y
B
ale, fate.
senate, chaotic.
glare, care, and as e in there.
am, at.
arm, father,
ant, and final a in America, armada, etc.
final, regal, pleasant,
all, fall.
eve.
elate, evade.
end, pet.
fern, her, and as i in sir, etc.
agency 4 judgment.
ice? quiet.
rescent. , fit,
olcl, sober, obey, sobriety, orb, nor. odd, forest, not. atom, carol, oil, boil.
food, fool, and as u in rude, rule* house, mouse, use, mule, unite, cut, but.
full, put, or as oo in foot, book, urn, burn. yet, yield.
Spanish Habana, C6rdqba, where it is like English v but made with the lips alone.
ch as in chair, cheese.
D " " Spanish Almodoyar. pulgada, where it is
nearly like th in English then, g " " go, get.
G " " German Landtag - ch in Ger. ach, etc. u " ; in Spanish Jijona, g in Spanish gila; like
English h in hue, but stronger. hw " wh in which. ic " ch in German ich, Albrecht «= g in German
Arensberg, Mecklenburg, etc. in sinker, longer. sing, long.
French bon, Bourbon, and m in the French fitampes; here it indicates nasalizing of the preceding vowel. shine, shut. " thrust, thin. this.
" "
" "
sh
th
TII ^
zh u z in azure, and s in pleasure.
An apostrophe ['] is sometimes used as in ta/b'l (table), k&2/Jm (chasm), to indicate the elision of a vowel or its reduction to a mere murmur.
For foreign sounds, the nearest English equiva- lent is generally used. In any case where a special symbol, as o, H, K, N, is used, those unfamiliar with the foreign sound indicated may substitute the Eng- lish sound ordinarily indicated by the letter. For a full description of all such sounds, see the article on PRONUNCIATION.
A PARTIAL LIST OF THE LEADING ARTICLES IN VOLUME IV
BRONZE.
Mr. Russell Sturgis.*
Dr. George Kriehn. BROOKLYN.
Professor Franklin W. Hooper.*
Mr. George Gladden. BROWNING, ROBERT.
Professor Wilbur Lucius Cross.
Dr. Horatio S. Krans. BRUSSELS.
"Mrs. Allan E. Engle.
Professor Walter Phclps Hall. BRYANT.
Professor William Poterficld Trent.
Dr. Horatio S. Krans. BUCHANAN.
Dr. Horatio S. Krann.
ProfoHHor James Edward Winston. BUDAPEST.
Mr. Edward Lathrop Engle.
Professor Walter Phclps Hall. BUDDHISM.
Professor A. V. W. Jackson.
Professor John L, Gerig. JHTKNOR AIRES.
Mr. Edward Lathrop Englc.
Professor John D. Fitz-Gerald. BUFFALO.
Mr. John Saylcs. BUILDING.
ProfoHHor Arthur L, Frothingham ; Mr. Charles Shattuck Hill; Professor A. D. F. rTamlin. BXT1LDING HTONK.
Professor Hcinrich Hies. BULGARIA.
Mrs. Allan E. Engle; Professor Charles Knapp; Professor Carl ton Hayes; Mr. Leon Dominian, BURIAL.
Professor Arthur L. Frothingham.
Dr. George Kriolm. BUKKB, EDMUND,
Professor Oeorgo Elliot Howard.
Professor Walter Phclps Hall. BURMA.
Mr. Henry Gannett*; Professor Edwin A. Start; Mr. Kdward L. Englc; Mr. Leon Dominian; Professor Wal- ter P, Flail; Profes-sor Charles Knapp; Professor Alexander F. Chamberlain*; Professor Dana (-. Miuiro; and others BURNS.
Mr. A. L du P. Coleman.
Dr. Horatio S, Krana. BURR, AARON.
Professor James Edward Winston. BUST.
Dr. George Kriehn. BUTTERFLIES AND MOTHS.
Mr. Ernest Tngersoll.
Mr. C. William Beebe. BUTTON.
Mr. Herbert T. Wade. BUTTRESS.
Professor A. D. F. Hainlin.
BYRON, GEORGE.
Professor Wilbur Lucius Cross.
Dr. Horatio S. Krans. BYZANTINE ART.
Professor Arthur L. Frothingham ; Pro- fessor A. D. F. Hainlin; Dr. George Kriehn. BYZANTINE EMPIRE.
Professor Dana Carleton Munro. CABBALA.
Professor Morris Jastrow.
Professor Nathaniel Schmidt. CABINET.
Professor Alvin Saundcrs Johnson. CAESAR.
Dr. George N. Olcott.*
Professor Charles Knapp. CAGE BIRDS.
Mr. C. William Beebe. CALCULATING MACHINES.
Professor David Eugene Smith; Mr. Moses Nelson Baker; Professor Clif- ford B. Upton. CALCULUS.
Professor David Eugene Smith.
Professor Frank N. 'Cole.
CALCUTTA.
Mrs. Allan E. Englc. CALENDAR.
Professor Harold Jacoby; Professor Eclwin A. Start; Dr. W J McGee*; Professor T. W. Edmondson, CALHOUN.
Professor William Peterfield Trent; Dr. Ploratio S. Krans; Mr. Benjamin B. Kendrick. CALIFORNIA.
Mr, Allen Leon Churchill; Mr. Leon Dominian; Dr. Frederick Leslie Ran- som e; and others. CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF. Mr. W. H. Henderson. Mr. Allen Leon Churchill. CALORIMETRY.
Professor Joseph Swectman Ames. CALVIN.
Dr. Samuel Macauley Jackson.* Professor Irving F. Wood. CALVINISM.
Dr. Frank Hugh Foster. Professor Irving F. Wood. CAMBODIA.
Mrs. Allan E. Engle; Professor Charles Knapp ; Professor Alexander F. Cham- berlain.*
CAMBRIDGE, UNIVERSITY OF.
Professor Isaac Leon Kandel. CAMELID/E.
Mr. C. William Beebe. CAMOES.
Dr. Frederic Taber Cooper.
Professor John D. Fitz-Gerald. CANAAN AND CANAANITES.
Professor Nathaniel Schmidt,
* Deceased,
VI
CANADA.
Mr. John W. Russell; Mr. Leon Do- minian; Mr. Charles Swift Sloane; Mr. Thomas Guthric Marquis. CANADIAN LITERATURE.
Professor Wilbur Lucius Cross; Mr. John W. Russell ; Mr. Thoinaa Chith- rie Marquis; Dr. Horatio S. Krnns. CANAL.
Mr. Charles Shattuck Hill.
Mr. Herbert Treadwell Wade. CANOE.
Mr. George Glad don. CANON LAW.
Professor Dana Carleton Munro.
Professor Irving F. Wood. CANOVA, ANTONIO.
Dr. George Kriehn. CANTERBURY. *
Professor Dana Carleton Munro; Pro- fessor A. D. F. Hamlin; Mr. William Churchill. CANTICLES.
Professor Nathaniel Schmidt, CAPE OF GOOD HOPE.
Professor Walter P. Hall; Mr. William Churchill; Mr. Charles Swift Sloane. CAPILLARITY.
Professor Joseph Sweetman Ames. CAPITAL.
Dr. Roland P. Falkner.
Professor Alvin Saunders Johnson. CARBON COMPOUNDS.
Professor Martin A. Rosanoff. CARBONIC-ACID GAS,
Professor Martin A. Rosanoff. CARBONIFEROUS SYSTEM.
Professor Heinrich Ries.
Mr, David Hale Newland. CARICATURE.
Mr. Frank Fowler.*
Dr. George Kriehn. CARLYLE.
Professor Wilbur Lucius Cross.
Dr. Horatio S. Krans. CARPENTRY.
Professor A. D. F. Hamlin. CARPRTO AND RUGS.
Mr. George Leland Hunter. CARRACCL
Dr. George Kriehn. CARRIAGE.
Mr. Herbert Treadwell Wade. CARRIER, COMMON.
Professor George W. Kirchwey. CARTHAGE.
Professor James Morton Paton.
Professor Charles Knapp. CASS, LEWIS.
Professor James Edward Winston. CASTE.
Professor A. V. W. Jackson; Dr. W J
McGcc*; Dr. Robert H. Lowie. CASTLE.
Professor A. D. F. Hamlin. CAT.
Mr. Ernest Ingersoll.
Mr. C. William Beebe. CATACOMBS.
Professor Arthur L. Frothingbam.
Dr. George Kriehn. CATALAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE.
Professor John D. Fitz-Gerald.
CATALOGUING.
Dr. Melvil Dewny.
Mr. William Warner Bishop. CATALYSIS.
Professor Martin A. RosanofT. CATHARINE If (The Great).
Professor Walter Phelps Hall. CATHEDRAL.
Professor Arthur L. Froth ingham.
Professor A. D. F. Kami in. CATTLE AND CATTLE PLAGUE.
Dr. Alfred Charles True.
Dr. Edwin West Allen.
CATULLUS.
Dr. George N. Olcott.*
Professor Charles Knapp. CAUCASUS.
Professor Walter P. TIall; Dr. Clark Wissler; Mr. Loon Dominian; Mrs. Allan E. Englc. CAUSALITY.
Professor Evandor Bradley McGilvary. CAVALRY,
General TlieophiluH F. Roclenbough.*
Lieut. Col. Joseph Theodore Dickman. CAVE OR CAVERN.
Mr. David Halo Newland, CAVE ANIMALS.
Professor Alpheiis Spring Packard.*
Mr. C. William Boobc. CAVOUR.
Professor Edwin A. Start.
Professor Walter Plielpw Hall. CELEBES.
Dr. Robert U. Lowie,; Mr. Cyrus C.
Adams j Mr. William Churchill. CELIBACY.
Dr. Samuel Macaulcy Jackson.*
Professor Irving F. Wood. CELL (In An i main).
Profewnor Charles Benedict Davenport.
Mr. C. William Beebc. CELL (In Plants).
Professor John Merle Coulter. CELLINI.
Mr. Frank Fowler.*
Dr. George Kriohn. CELTIC LANGUAGES.
Professor John Lawrence Gorig. CEMENT.
Mr. Ernest F. Burchard. CEMETERY.
Mr. Moses Nelson Baker. CENSUS.
Dr. Roland P. Falknor.
ProfesHor Alvin Saunderw Johnson. CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION.
Dr. TMarciiH Benjamin. CENTRE OF GRAVITY.
Professor Joseph Swoetman Ames. CEPHALOPODA.
Mr. Gilbert Van Tngen.
Mr. David Halo Newland. CERVANTES SAAVEDRA.
Dr. Frederic Tabor Cooper.
Professor John D. Fitz-Gerald. CEYLON.
Professor A. V. W. Jackson; Professor Dana CarMon Munro; MrH. Allan E. Engle; Mr. Charles Swift Sloane,; Professor Alexander F. Chamborl&m* ; and others.
* Deceased.
THE NEW INTERNATIONAL E N C YC LO P^ D IA
BROCKELMAJOT, bruk'cl-miin, KABL (18C6- ). A German university professor and aeronaut. He was born at Wiesbaden, Germany, and was educated at the local gymna- sium and at tlio universities of Mu- nich and Erlangen. lie became professor at the University of Halle, chose photo-chemistry as a specialty, and on this subject wrote several books. He also made more than 80 balloon as- ceiiHions, taking many first prizes in aeronautics — among thorn several offered by the German Emperor — and writing Wir Lufts'chiffer (1900). The Aeronautic and Alpine Society of Berlin, elector! him a member.
BBOCK/EMT (l\Fons Bruclerus Mclibocus of the ancient JlomanH), popularly known as the "Bloc.kuborg'. The lushest summit of the Harz Mountains. It IB situated in Prussia, about 20 miles west-south west of Halberstadt, and has an elevation of 3747 foot above sea level. The mountain is very frequently veiled in mist and is celebrated for the phenomenon known as the JRrovkcngospcnst ('spectre of the Brocken'), which, is nothing more than the shadows of men, houHt'H, and other objects thrown upon the mi.sty eastern horizon by the light of sun- Hot. The, mountain is very much frequented on. account of fine views obtained from its sum- mit, winch has a hotel and obHorvatory, and is reached by a railway lino constructed in 1898.
BROOKES, brftk'eX BABTHOLD HEINBIOH (1080-1747). A German poet, born in Ham- burg. JFo mtudicd at the universities of Halle and Leyden and traveled extensively. In 1724- 20 lie and his friends published Der Patriot (4 voln, ). A pannion oratorio set to music by a score of composers, including Hiindel, made him famous. Jn his works he turns, with a simple religious faith, from tho stilted conventional poetry of his clay to the appreciation of nature, then but slightly understood. Particularly de- serving of citation is his collection Irdisohes Ver</nil</cn in Oott (9 vols., 1721-48), which shows the influence of the Bible, Milton, and Thomson; new abridged ed. by Stiehlcr (1887). He translated Pope's Essay on Man and Thom- son's Reasons. Consult A. Brandl, B. S. Brookes (fniiHbruok, 1878).
BROCKET (Fr. trocar*, from OF. broc, Fr. 'brovlw, spit, tine; cf. OF. broquct, dim. of fcroc). A book name of certain South American deer, because their antlers are simple spikes like
those of a yearling stag. (See ANTLER.) They inhabit Brazil, are of "small size, heavy form, and arched back." There are four species, form- ing the subgenus Coassus, and varying from 19 to 27 inches in height. One is the Brazilian deer, ov guazu-viva (Coassus ncmorivagus) , and is brown, each hair being tipped with white. An- other is the guajiu-pita (Coassus rufus). A closely allied form is the diminutive vcnada or pudu (Pwdua humilis) of the Chilean Andes, the smallest of all deer, with spike horns only 2l/2 inches long. See Purnr.
BROCK/ETT, LINUS PIEBPONT (1820-93). An American author. He was born in Canton, Conn., and in 1843 graduated at the Yale Medi- cal School. After a few years of practice in his profession he devoted himself exclusively to literary pursuits, was connected, as editor or contributor, with many magazines, and pub- lished, among other works, a History of Educa- tion (I860) ; Philanthropic Results of tUe Civil War (18C4); Lights and Shadoivs of the Great Rebellion (1806; reprinted as Scouts, $/n>s, and Heroes of the Great Civil War, in 1802 and 1911) ; Men of Our Day (1868) ; The Tear of Battles (1871); Epidemic and Contagious Dis- eases (1873); The Great Metropolis (1888).
BE.OCKHATTS, broVhous, FRIEDKICH AR- NOLD (1772-1823). A German publisher, born in Dortmund, the founder of the Leipzig firm that bears his name. The encyclopaedia with which he is chiefly associated ( Brockhaus's Kon- vcrsations-Lcxikon) he purchased incomplete in 1808, after it had been in progress for 12 years. He completed in Altenburg a first edition in 181 1, and a second was begun in 1812. The busi- ness was removed to Leipzig in 1818, and book publishing was undertaken on a large scale. Brockhaus's sons and grandsons, who succeeded him, have carried the Eonversations-Leaikon through 14 editions, and have conducted with success similar enterprises, notably Ersch and Gruber's gigantic Allgemeine En&yldopadie (167 vols. since 1818, incomplete). The fifth edition of the Kleines Konversations-Lescikon appeared in 1910 (2 vols.). Consult H. E. Brockhaus, F, A. B., sein Leben und Wirken (3 vols., Leip- zig, 1872-81) ; and the same author's Die Firma F, A. B. von der Befjrilndung ois sum hundert- jahrigen JuUltium, 1805-1905 (Leipzig, 1905).
BROCXHATJS, HEBMANN (1806-77). A Ger- man Orientalist, the third son of Friedrich Ar- nold Brockhaus. He was born in Amsterdam
BROCKPORT
and was educated in Leipzig, G-ottingen, and Bonn, completing his studies in Paris and Ox- ford. In 1839 he was called as assistant pro- fessor at Jena. Two years later he became lecturer at Leipzig, and in 1848 was elected professor of Sanskrit language and literature there. His works include the first five books of the great collection of fairy tales of Somadeva, Eatliasaritsagara (The Ocean of the Flow of Story,' 1839-66) ; an edition (1845) of the play Prabodhachandrodaya ('The Rise of the Moon of Intelligence') of Krishna Misra; and a criti- cal edition of the Lieder dcs Hafis (3 vols.. 1854-00). In 1841 he proposed the plan of printing Sanskrit works in the Latin alphabet, and he did much in other ways to increase interest in and knowledge of the Oriental lan- guages, lie prepared the first European glos- sary of the Avestan language, which was ap- pended to an edition of Vcndidad Bade (Leip- zig, 1850). In 1856 he became editor of Ersch and Gruber's Allgcmeine Ensyldopiidie, and pre- pared vols. Ixii to xcix of that work. In 1853 he founded the Zeitschrift der deutschen mar- genltindischen Cfesellschaft, in which, he pub- lished numerous articles relating to the lan- guages of India, Arabia, and Persia.
BROCK'PORT. A village in Monroe Co., N. Y., 18 miles west of Rochester, on the Erie Canal and on the New York Central and Hudson River Railroad (Map: New York, C 4). It is the seat of a State normal school. The village is the centre of a fruit-growing and agricultural region, and manufactures shoes, canned goods, pianos, piano cases, tractors, spraying outfits, globes, clocks, etc. The water works are owned by the village. Pop., 1900, 3398; 1910, 3579.
BROCK/TOE". A city in Plymouth Co., Mass., 20 miles south of Boston, on the New York, New Haven, and Hartford Railroad (Map: Massachusetts, B 3). Its manufactures include shoes, lasts, mechanics' tools, rubber goods, fur- niture, paper boxes, pianos, etc. The city has a public library of about 60,000 volumes. First settled in 1700, and originally a part of Bridge- water, Brockton was incorporated as the town of North Bridgewater in 1821. Its present mime was adopted in 1874, and a city charter secured in 1881. The government is administered by a mayor, elected annually, and a bicameral city council. The executive appoints the license com- missioners, and, with the concurrence of the board of aldermen, the board of health, members of the police department, and trustees of the public library. Other officials, excepting the school committee which is chosen by popular election, are selected by the council. Pop., 1890, 27,294; 1900,40,063; 1910,56,878; 1913 (local), 65,000; 1920," 66,138. Consult Kingman, His- tory of BrocJcton (Syracuse, 1895).
BROCK'V'ILIjE. The capital of Leeds Co., Ontario, Canada, taking its name from Gen. Sir Isaac Brock (q.v.) ; on the left bank of the St. Lawrence, about 60 miles below Kingston and 125 southwest of Montreal (Map: Ontario, J 4). It is an important railway and commercial con- tre, being a division point of the Grand Trunk, and the southern terminus of the Ottawa and Brockville branch of the Canadian Pacific and of the Brockville, Westport, and Northwestern, and a port of call for St. Lawrence steamers. It manufactures stoves and hardware, steam engines, agricultural machinery, carriages, etc., and has an extensive trade in cheese and butter. Brockville has a large asylum for the insane,
2 BRODERICK
two well-equipped hospitals, and is the float of a United States consulate. Pop., 1001, 8040; 1911 9374.
BROCK'WAY, HOWARD (1870- ). An American musician and composer, born in Brook- lyn, N. Y., Nov. 22, 1870. After pianoforte studies with II. 0. C. Kortheuer from 1887 to 1889, at the age of 20 he went to Berlin, where he continued his instrumental studios with Barth, and composition with 0, B. Boise. At the age of 24 lie had composed a symphony (op. 12), a ballade for orchestra, uiul a violin and piano sonata (op. 0) ; as well as a cavatina for violin and orchestra. These, together with other piano solos, were given at a concert of Broek- way's own works in February, 1895, at tins Berlin Sing-Akadomie. A few months later he returned to New York, where lie remained until 1003. In 1003-00 he was professor of compo- sition at the Peabody Institute in Baltimore. Thereafter he made New York his residence.
BROCKWAY, ZEIUTLON REED (1827-11)20). An American pcnologiHt. ITc was born in Lyine, Conn., April 28, 1827. In 1850 ho entered upon prison service at the Connecticut State Prison. Thence he went to Albany Co., N. Y., as deputy superintendent of the penitentiary, and in 18 54 became superintendent of the, IVIonroo County (N. Y.) Penitentiary, In 18(51 ho took charge, of the House of Correction, Detroit, Midi., which position lie gave up in 1870 to assume the superintend ency of the New York State Reforma- tory at Elm irk. This position he resigned in 1000. In 1808 he was elected president of the National Prison Association of America, and was honorary president of the International Prison Congress meeting in Washington in JO 10. He was elected mayor of Klmira in 1005. Mr. Brockway's fame as a prison reformer rests largely upon his work in introducing the in- determinate sentence at the Elmira Reformatory. The success of the indeterminate sentences in this institution was largely responsible for its wide acceptance in other prisons. Consult his book, Fifty Tears of Prison flwvioo (New York, 1012). See ELM IRA REFORMATORY; PEN CLOU Y.
BRO'DERICK, DAVID CouraMTil (1820-50). An American politician. lie was born in Wash- ington, the son of a stonec.titter ; but early re- moved with his father to New York City, where he attended the public schools and afterward learned his father's trade. He then kept a grog shop for soino time, became prominent as a leader of the rougher clement in Tammany, and was chosen foreman of a volunteer fire-engine company, which had a considerable political in- fluence. He nevertheless devoted much of his time to private study and by his moral habits and his personal integrity earned the respert of the better element in the city. In 3840 he failed to secure ;sa coveted election to Congress, and three yea,r,s later removed to California, whore he soon tbecamc the recognized leader of one of the two factions into which the Democratic party in the State was then divided. Ho was a mem- ber of the California Constitutional Convention in 1849, and served two terms in the State Senate, for part of the time as presiding officer. In 1856 he was elected to the United States Senate and soon became conspicuous for MB op- position to the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution. In 1850 he took an active part in a rancorous political campaign in California, and, challenged at its close by Judgo Terry on account of certain strictures in one of
BUODEKIP
liis speeches, lie fought a duel on September 13, in which he was fatally wounded. His death under Midi circ.unmtances caused a deep sensa- tion in the ttawt as well as in the West and was generally attributed to the animosity aroused among slaveholders and their political sym- pathizers by Broderick's unyielding opposition to the further spread of slavery, especially in Kansas.
BRODEBJP, brod'rip, WILLIAM JOHN (1789- 18f>9). An English lawyer and naturalist. He graduated at Oxford, studied and practiced law, edited law reports, and was for 34 years a Lon- don police magistrate*.. He was devoted to science, and wrote the zoological articles for the Penny Cyulopwdia, He published Zoological Recrea- tions (1848) and Leaves from the Note-Book of a Naturalist (1852). He was secretary of the Geological Society for many years. His great condiological collection is in the British Mu- seum. Consult Berger, W. J, tirodvriv (Paris, 1850).
BRODEUB,, bnVdeV, Louis PHILIPPE (1802- 1923). A Canadian statesman, born at Belceil, Quebec. Ho was educated at the College of St. Hyacinthe and at Laval University. In 1884 he was admitted to the bar and in 1891 was elected as a Liberal to the House of Commons, retaining his seat until appointed Speaker of the House in 1001. In 1904 he became Minister of Inland Revenue in the cabinet of Sir Wilfrid Laurier (q.v.),and two years later was appointed Minis- ter of Marine and Fisheries, in which capacity he did much to improve conditions of navigation on th« St. Lawrence Rive*. He also introduced legislation which prevented the American To- bacco Company from establishing a foothold in Canada. In 1907 and 1911, respectively, he was a delegate* to the Colonial and Imperial confer- ences in 'London, and in the former year was associated with William Stevens Fielding (q.v.) in negotiating the Franco-Canadian Treaty. Upon the establishment of a Canadian naval ser- vice in 1910 he became its head. Canada was represented by him at the Imperial Defense Con- ference in London (1909), and at the North Atlantic Fisheries Conference held in Washing- ton in pursuance of The Hague Tribunal's deci- sion. In 1911 he was appointed a judge of the Supreme Ccmrt of Canada.
BBOD'HEAD, JOHN ROMEYN (1814-73). An American historian, born in Philadelphia, Pa. 31o removed with his parents to New York City in 1820, graduated at Rutgers College in 3881, and in 18,'J5 was admitted to the bar, but noon abandoned tho practice of law and devoted his attention almost entirely to the study of the histmy of Now York. For several years after ]8;tt) he was connected with the United States legation in Holland, and while there was ap- pointed (1841), in pursuance of an act of the New York Legislature, to procure and transcribe documents in European archives relating to the history of the State. He devoted himself to this tusk with great energy and succeeded in col- lecting more than 5000 documents, many of which had been previously unknown to his- torians. "Tho ship in which he came back," Huyn Bancroft, "was more richly freighted with, new material for American history than any that ever crossed the Atlantic." The documents were printed by the Stato, under the editorship of O'Callaghan and Fernow, as Documents Re- Idling to the Colonial History of the State of KvwYvrk (14 vote*, Albany, 1850-80). From
J BltODBICK
1840 to 1849 Brodhead was Secretary of Lega- tion in London, George Bancroft then being the United States Minister to England, and from 1853 to 1857 he was naval officer of the port of New York. His rcpiitation rests chiefly on his History of the Slate of New York (2 vols., 1853- 71), which is notable for its thorough scholar- ship, its candor, and its painstaking accuracy, and which, though left incomplete, remains the standard work for the period covered — 1009-91. Brodhead also published An Oration on the Con- quest of "New Nelherland (1804) and an address entitled Government of Sir Edmund Andros over New England (1807).
BUO'DIE, ALEXANDER OSWALD (1849-1918 ). An American army officer, born in St. Lawrence Co., N. Y. He graduated from West Point and was appointed a first lieutenant of cavalry in 1875. Two years later he resigned, engaged in the cattle trade in Kansas, and later took up mining and engineering in Arizona. During this period he was a second time enlisted ( 1883- 84), serving in two Indian campaigns. At the outbreak of the Spanish-American War he be- came a major in Theodore Roosevelt's "Rough Riders," saw fighting in Cuba and elsewhere, and was promoted to be lieutenant colonel. In 1902 he \vas appointed temporary Governor of Arizona; in 1905 he became assistant chief of the Record and Pension Office (rank of major) and then military secretary (lieutenant colonel), and in 1907 adjutant general.
BRODIE, SIB BENJAMIN COLLINS (1783- 1802). An English surgeon. He studied under Sir Kverard Home at St. George's Hospital and was surgeon there, having previously lectured both on anatomy and surgery. In 1810 he was elected to the Royal Society, in 1811 received its Copley medal for physiological papers, and in 1858 was elected president. He became pro- fessor of comparative anatomy in the Royal College of Surgeons in 1819, and later president. He was attending physician to George IV. William IV made him sergeant surgeon (1832) and a baronet (1834). He was sergeant surgeon to Queen Victoria. He was one of the leaders in Kngland of the opposition to homoeopathy and to Gall's "phrenology." His work on diseases of the joints promoted conservative treatment and decreased the frequency of amputations. He was an able diagnostician and a cool steady surgeon, but his passion was prevention of dis- ease. He wrote two volumes of Psychological Inquiries (1854; 1862). His professional pa- pers, with lus Autobiography, were collected ( 1805 ) by Hawkins. Consult Acland's biography (London, 1804).— Plis son, SIR BENJAMIN COL- LINS BRODTE (1817-80), became eminent as a chemist and studied particularly the constitution of carbons. In 1855 he was elected Aldrichian professor of chemistry at Oxford, his Alma Mater.
BRODItlCK, WILLIAM ST. JOHN FREMANTLE, VISCOUNT MIDLETON (1850- ). An English statesman. He graduated in 1879 at Oxford, sat as a Conservative for West Surrey from 1880 to } 885, and for the Guildford division of Surrey after that year until 1900. From 1880 to 1892 he was financial secretary to the War Ofiice. In 1895-98 he was Undersecretary of State for War, and in 1898 was appointed Undersecretary of State for Foreign Affairs. He was Secretary of State for War in 1900, and his management of the War Office during the South African War was criticised. In 1903 he was made Secretary
BBODSKT
of State for India. He supported Lord Kitch- ener in his controversy with Viceroy Curzon, which led to the latter's resignation in 1905. He became an alderman of the London County Council in 1007.
BRQD'SKY, ABOUT (1851- ). A Rus- sian violinist. He was born at Taganrog in the Province of the Bon Cossacks, studied under Hellmesberger in Vienna, and became a member of the Hellmesberger quartet and of the orches- tra of the Royal Opera in Vienna. Subsequently he undertook a, concert tour, pursued further study under Laub in Moscow, and in 1875 was appointed an instructor in the Moscow Conserva- tory. He became director of the symphony con- certs in Kiev in 1879, in 1882 a professor in the Leipzig Conservatory, and in 1891 an instructor in Scharwenka's Conservatory and concert master of the Symphony Society of New York. In 1895 he was appointed director of the Royal College of Music in Manchester, England. He appeared in concert with great success in 1881- 82 in London, Vienna, Paris, and Moscow.
BRODY, brG'di (Slav. pi. of lrod, ford, re- ferring to the swamps around it). A town in the Austrian Crownland of Galicia, about 56 miles east-northeast of Lemberg, not far from the Russian frontier (Map: Austria, J 1). Al- though its commercial importance has been on the decline for several years, due to the with- drawal in 1879 of its charter as a free commer- cial city, it still remains a leading exchange mart between Austria-Hungary and Russia. The chief articles of commerce are grain, wool, cattle, furs, feathers, and agricultural implements, its trade being almost entirely in the hands of the Jews, who constitute two-thirds of the popula- tion. Pop., 1890, about 17,500; 1900, 17,360; 1910, 13,588.
BRODZINSKI, br<5d-zen'sk$, KAZIMIEBZ (1791-1835). A famous Polish poet. lie was born at Krolpwka (Galicia) and received a military training. Having joined the artillery corps a little before 1812, it was his lot to par- ticipate in the disastrous Napoleonic invasion of Russia. In 1813 he was taken prisoner by the Prussians in the battle -of Leipzig. Three years later, on being liberated, he settled at Warsaw and devoted himself to the study of comparative literature. Through his mastery of German, he soon became thoroughly familiar with the works of Schiller, Goethe, and their contemporaries. In German, too, he read Shake- speare. By 1822 he had acquired so profound a knowledge of the world's literature as to be- come lecturer on Polish, German, and English writers at the University of Warsaw. Even before this his fame had been made by the publication of two volumes of poems, especially the idyllic Wieslaw, a narrative poem (modeled somewhat after Goethe's Hermann and Dorothea) dealing with the life of Polish peasantry and yet full of delicate sentiment, which is still much read. Indeed, Brodzinski was the first writer in Poland to discard classical literary models for the everyday life of the people all about him; he was a Polish Wordsworth, as it were, mak- ing a new path in his native literature. He knew life as well as books and gave a most wholesomely fresh impulse to modern Polish literature. Besides his original writings (of which the eight-volume edition published at Warsaw in 1872-74 is probably the best), he has added greatly to Polish literary culture by translations of the Book of Job and the dramas
I BROGLIE
of Schiller. Unfortunately the revolution of 1831 interrupted his literary labors. Disap- pointed with the outcome of the Polish innur- rection, he became a Messianist, expressing the belief in one of his later works that "the Polish nation is the Copernicus of the moral world.1' For an account of his life and work, consult Arabazhin, Kazimicra ttrodsinski (Kiev, J8J)1).
BBOFFERIO, brof-fa're-0, ANCWLO (180:2- 66). An Italian poet and publicist, born at Castelnupvo-Calcea. In 1834 he established the BJesaaggiere Tori')*ese, and from 1849 to 1850 he edited the radical Vocc delta Liberia. Impris- oned for liberalism in 1831 and 184G, ho was from 1S48 until his death a member of the Parliament of Piedmont and achieved distinc- tion as an opponent of Cavour. A prolific author of historical and political works and of memoirs, he still lives in his dialect Canzoni piemontesi, which arc good reflections of the idealism of the revolution. Consult K. Kbrunci, A. Brofferio e il suo tcwpo (Asti, 1898), and translation of I tniei tempi by L. W. (London, 1801).
BROGUE, brfl'lye', AOIIILLE CHARLES LfSJONCHS VIOTOB, Duo DE (1785-1870). A French states- man. He was born in Paris, Nov. 28, 1785. The family was Piedmontese, but had won distinction in the armies of France, one of its members obtaining the rank of marshal under Louis XIV, and another holding t'he post of commander in chief under Louis XVI. Tho father of Achille died in 1704 on the guillotine, but left the injunction to his son to remain faithful to Liberty even though she was un- grateful and unjust. "His father murdered, his mother in prison, his property conii seated and plundered, the young I)e wroglic iirst appears in life in wooden shoes and a reel cap of liberty, begging an assignat," His mother having es- caped and remarried, Broglio was carefully edu- cated by his stepfather. Early in life he was a member of Napoleon's Council' of State, and was detailed by the Emperor on several diplomatic missions. Broglie entered the House of Peers in 1815, just before he was 30 years old. At the trial of Marshal Ney ho alone had the cour- age to speak and vote for acquittal on the ground that the Marnhal was not guilty of pre- meditated treason. During the Restoration ho acted with the doctrinaires, of whom Ouissot was the ablest representative. In 1810 he married Mme. de StaeTs daughter Albertine, About the same time he became the ally of Clarkson and Wilberforce in the antislavery cause. Jn Louis Philippe's first cabinet lie was Minister of .Pub- lic Worship, and in 1832 succeeded Cam mi r Perier as Minister of Foreign Affairs. In 18IJ5 he was the head of the cabinet. At this time the restrictive September Laws were passed, al- though Broglie had long advocated greater free- dom for the press. His ministry fell because of his desire to indemnify the United States for shipping losses under Napoleon. Hiding beside the King when Ficschi's attempt on the life of Louis Philippe was made, Broglio received ono of the bullets through his coat collar, lie re- tired permanently from public life, in 1830. Though not in office, Broglie preserved through life close personal and political friendship with Guizot, who made him Ambassador to England in 1847. The overthrow of the constitutional monarchy in 1848 was a severe blow to the Duke; but he consented to sit in the Republican assemblies and labored to counteract what ho
deemed to he tlie evils of universal suffrage and to avert the coup d'etat which he saw was impending. When it came, ho was conspicuous as one of the bitterest enemies of the Imperial regime, though lie admitted that an empire was "the government wliich the poorer classes of France desired and the rich deserved." His last 20 years were devoted to philosophical and literary pursuits, as the result of which he pub- lished Merits ct discours (Paris, 1803). With, regard to the future he said, "1 shall die a peni- tent Christian and an impenitent Liberal." He WJIH a member of the Academy and other so- cieties, lie died in Paris, Jan. 25, 1870. Con- sult Ouissot, Le duo de Broylie (Paris, 1872) and Broglic, Personal Reminiscences of the Late Ihio do Jirof/lie, trans, and ed. by Beaufort (London, 1888).
BK.OGLIE, JACQUES VICTOR ALBEBT, Duo DE (182J-1001). A French statesman and his- torian, son of the preceding. His publication, in 3840, of a brilliant study, ftystcme rcUpieuno do Leibnitz, brought him the place of Secretary of Embassy at Madrid and later at Koine. After the Revolution of 1848 he defended the temporal power of the Popo and moderate constitutional liberalism in the JtGvua <to Deux Afondes. Then followed in 1853 hiw Ititutlati morales ct litle- rairw, and from 1850 to 1800 his flifttoire de V Kg line ct do Vfflmpire romain an J\'e sieele (0 volw.), which gave him hiw seat in the French Academy in 1802. In 1870 he succeeded his father as Duke, and the following year was elected to the National Assembly. In 1871 he wan also appointed Ambassador to Great Britain, but WUB recalled by Thiern the following year. When Marshal MucMahon tinHumod the presi- dency in 1878, the Due de liroglio became Premier and 'held the, office until May 16, 1874. In 3876 he waH elected Senator and retrained the leadership of the reactionary parti en; and in 1877 he was again Premier for a few months. He achieved greater distinction an a historian than as a HtateHinan. Among hia works, other than those mentioned above, arc: Souvwainctti pontificate ct la Ubort6 (1861); Lo secret du roi: corre- spondanoo swdlo de Louiti XV (1878) ; Marie Th6rfae impcratrwe (1888) ; Mtimoircs de Talley- rand (1801). (Consult Tagniez, Le duo de Brog- lio, mt-mt (Paris, 1002).
BBOGLIO, brO'lya, EMTLIO '( 1814-92). An Italian Htatenman and author, born in Milan, and educated at the universities of Verona and Pavia. lie took part in the .Revolution in Lom- lumly in 1848 and wan appointed Secretary of the Provisional Government. In 1856 he pub- liHhecl 25 letters to Count Cavour "On the In- come Tax" (l)cll' imposta aulla rcndita, Turin, 2 V<>!H.). IFe was a member of Parliament from 1801 to 1870, and from 1807 to 1869 was Minis- ter of Public Instruction. His works include: 8 twlii Mtalitussionali (1860) ; Delle forme parla- Mcntari (1S05) ; Vita di Wcdcrico il Orande (2 VO!H., 1874-70).
BBOGKCTE, br6g (Scotch, from Gael, "brig, shoe, hoof). A rudely formed species of shoe of many varieties, formerly used by the aboriginal Irish and the Scottish Highlanders. The name lias been applied to a modern kind of shoe with a hob-nailed sole. It is also applied to the peculiar pronunciation of English that distin- guishes natives of Ireland. See SHOES AND WHOM MANITKACTHRTC.
BBOHAU, brfl'aN', EMTLTE MADELEINE (1833- 1000). A French actress, born Oct. 21, 1833, in
BROKE3ST BOW
Paris, the daughter of Augustine Suzanne Bro- han (1807-87) and the sister of Josephine FSlicite" Augustine Brohan (q.v.), both well- known actresses. At the age of 15 she entered the Conservatoire, from which she was gradu- ated in 1850 with the first prize for comedy. At her d6but the same year on the stage of the Come* die Francaise, she created the part of Marguerite in Les contcs de la rcine do 'Navarre, by Scribe and Legouve, and made a great success. She was elected a societaire in 1852. .Except for a two years' absence in Russia (1850-58), as a sequel to her unhappy marriage to M. Mario Uchard in 1854, she continued at the Theatre Frangais till 1880, when she retired. Besides her successes in the classic repertory, notably as Elmire in Tartufe, and Sylvia in Le jeu de Vamour et du hasard, she created leading parts in a number of new plays, among thorn Par droit de conquete, Les doigts de "fee, and Jfeves d' amour, Les caprices de Marianne, Le lion amoureu®, by Ponsard, and Le monde ou Von s'ennuie.
BBOHAK", JOSEPHINE FfiLioiTfi AUGUSTINE (1824-93). A French actress. She was born Dec. 2, 1824, the daughter of Suzanne Brolian, also a well-known French actress, who died in 1887. Augustine Brohan, after distinguishing herself at the Conservatoire, made, in 1841, a brilliant debut at the Theatre Fran^ais, as Dorine in Tartu fe and I-dsette in Rivaux d'eua- mcmes. In 1842 she was elected a member of the company. Among the many plays in which she made her reputation were: Le mariage de Fiyaro; L'Avarc; Le "bourgeois gcntilhomme; Le malade imaginaire; La irieillessc de Riche- lieu; Les artotowalies ; La famille Poisson. She was the author of several of the short dra- matic pieces, known as Provcrbes, for private representation, and was famous for her witty sayings, such as her parody of Rohan's cele- brated motto, "Coquette ne veux, soubrette ne daigno, Brohan suis." She succeeded Rachel as professor at the Conservatoire. In 1806 she retired from the theatre, owing to an affection of the eyes, and soon afterward became the wife of M. Kdmond David de Gheest, who died in 1885.
BROILING (OF. Iruiller, to boil, roast, probably from bruir, to roast; cf. Ger. Irulien, to scald). A convenient and expeditious mode of cooking small pieces of meat by laying them on a gridiron over a bright fire or even on the coals themselves. The latter is perhaps the most primitive mode of preparing meat for eating, as may be supposed from the ease and simplicity with which it is managed. Broiling is, in fact, a quicker sort of roasting. The albu- men of the outside being sealed up at once, the meat is rendered extremely nutritious, and therefore this process is much to be recommended.
BROKE, SIB PHILIP BOWES VERE (1776- 1841). An English admiral. He went to sea at the age of 12, entered the navy in 1792, and in 1806 became captain of the Shannon, which his discipline brought to a high state of effi- ciency. In 1813 (June 1) he defeated the American frigate Chesapeake, commanded by Capt. James Lawrence. He was permanently disabled during the engagement, but was made a K.C.B. for his victory. Consult Brighton, Memoir of Admiral Sir P. B. V. Broke (2 vols., London, 1866). See CHESAPEAKE, THE.
BRO'KEN BOW. A city and the county seat of Custer Co., Neb., 80 miles from Grand
BROKEN HEART I
Island, on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy railroad (Map: Nebraska, E 3). It is the centre of a productive farming and stock-raising district, and has bottling works and a creamery. The wator works are owned by the city. Pop., 1000, 1375; 1010, 2260.
BROKEN HEART, THE. A tragedy by John Ford, first acted in 1629 at Blackfriars by the king's servants, and published in 1G33 in quarto, under the pseudonym "Fide Honor/' with a dedication to William, Lord Craven. It was reprinted in 1811 in Weber's collection of the author's works (2 vols.).
BROKEN HILL. A mining town of Yan- cowinna Co,, New South Wales, Australia, 925 miles northwest of Sydney, 298 miles nortneast of Adelaide and 16 miles east of Silverton (Map: New South Wales, A3). The town is built on a ridge 150 feet above the plain, and has one of the richest silver lodes in the world. It has been worked since 1884. The export of silver, lead, gold, copper, and tin in the district in 1906 exceeded $10,000,000. In that year it pro- duced 27 per cent of the lead output of the world. Pop., 11)03, 27,160; 1911, 30,972.
BROKEN" WIND. See HEAVES.
BRO'KER (originally one who uses, man- ages, handles, OHG. Iriihhen, AS. toucan, ME. IruJcen, IroJcen, Ger. Irauchen, to use. For a similar development, cf. Ger. Mulder, broker, from makeln, makeln, to act as broker, allied to Dutch maken, to make; also Ger. handeln, to deal, bargain, from Hand, hand — i.e., from "handling"). An agent employed to make bar- gains and contracts between other persons in matters of trade, commerce, and navigation for a compensation, commonly called brokerage. When a broker is employed to buy or sell goods, he is not intrusted with the custody or possession of them and is not authorized to buy or sell in his own name. In this respect he differs from a factor. A broker is strictly a middleman, or intermediate negotiator between the parties; and for some purposes he is treated as the agent of both parties, but primarily he is deemed merely the agent of the party by whom he is originally employed. As soon as the negotiation is concluded he makes a memorandum thereof, a copy of which he gives to each party. Brokers are of various sorts, such as bill and note brokers, stock brokers, insurance brokers, mer- chandise brokers, real-estate brokers, ship brokers, and the like.
The insurance broker is to be distinguished from the ordinary insurance agent, who repre- sents and acts for the insurer; the broker is either the agent of the insured or a middleman between the insured and the insurer. His busi- ness is that of procuring insurance for those who choose to avail themselves of his services, and from any company which he or the insured may select. See INSURANCE.
BROMBERQ-, brom/berK (for Brahenlerg, the fort or hill on the Brahe). The capital of the administrative district of the same name, in the Prussian Province of Posen, situated on, the Brahe, about 6 miles from its junction with the Vistula and 69 miles northeast of Posen (Map : Prussia, H 2) . Its position on the Brom- berg Canal, built by Frederick II, which connects the Oder and the Elbe with the Vistula, and on the Berlin-Danzig Railway, makes it an impor- tant centre of trade, principally in lumber, flour, leather, coal, and wool. The principal articles of manufacture are vehicles, furniture, soap,
i BROME GRASS
candles, alcohol, and snuff. There are also brew- eries, distilleries, iron foundries, locomotive works, and dyeing establishments. It is gov- erned by a municipal council of 36 membern, who elect an executive board of 14. (See PRUS- SIA, Government.) On account of its wtrategical position there is always a large garrison sta- tioned there. Bromborg was founded by the Teutonic Knights. It became part of "PruHHia in 1772, at the time of the first partition of Poland. Pop., 1890, 41,000; 1900, 52,154; 1910, 57,585,
BROME, RICHARD (c.l590-c.!652). A minor English dramatist. He was a servant to Ben Jonson and is mentioned in the Introduction to Bartholomew flair. He was accused of gather- ing up for his own use his master's "sweep ings." He wrote 24 popular plays, the best of which are: The Northern Lass (1632), The Sparagm Garden (1040), The City Wit, and The Jovial Crew, or the Merry Beggars (first acted, 1641), remarkable for its presentation of the joys of vagabondage. Fifteen were comedies, original in plot, and with striking and realistic char- acters. With Thomas Hey wood (q.v.) he wrote The Late Lancashire Witches (1634), based on a contemporary trial for witchcraft. His dra- matic works were published, in 3 vols., in 1873. Consult Andrews, Richard Brome: A Study of his Life and Works (New York, 1913).
BROME GRASS (Neo-Lat. bromus, Gk. ppo- fios, Iromos, kind of oats, from /3ij3p<&<r/ceiv, "bibrv- skein, to cat), Bromus. A genua of annual or perennial grasses nearly allied to the fescue grasses. There are about 40 species, mowtly found in the north temperate zone, although some are found in South America. Some of the species are of considerable economic importance, while others are troublesome weeds. The brome grasses grow upon light soils and are quite re- sistant to drought. On this last account several species are highly valued in the semi-arid re- gions of the Great Plains, where they furnish considerable hay and forage. One of the best for this purpose is the smooth brome graHft (Bromus inermis). This species is a native of Europe, grows to a height of 2 to 5 foot and, being perennial, soon completely occupies the land to the exclusion of all other plants. A somewhat similar species is the annual, Schra- der's brome grass, or rescue grass (Bromus unialoides) , of South America. In some of the Southern States it is considered one of the best winter grasses for pasturage. Bromus ercotus, a native of southern Europe, is considered a valuable grass for dry limestone regions. Tho soft brome grass (Bromus mollis) is a native of England and introduced into the United States. It has soft, downy leaves, which arts readily eaten by cattle, but neither the quality nor the quantity of the herbage is very high. The seeds of this and other species have bcum reputed to be poisonous, but the evidence is not conclusive.
The giant brome grass (Bromus giflanteus) produces a large amount of fodder in England, but cattle do not seem to relish it, Bromus scoali- nus, called "rye brome/' "chess," and "cheat," is a troublesome weed in fieldn of wheat and rye* The seeds retain their vitality for a long time and frequently appear in grain ilclds where from some cause the cereal has been destroyed. To this fact the somewhat common belief that "wheat turns to cheat" is to be attributed. That there is no foundation for such an idea is easily
BROMELIA 7
demonstrated. A number of species are very ornamental, and Bromus brisccformis is some- times grown for winter bouquets.
BROME1/EA (after the Swedish botanist Jtromc-l). A genus of monocotylodonous plants, the typo of the family Bromeliaceao (q.v.). The bromelias are West Indian and Brazilian in origin, but some have been introduced into other countries for the fibre they yield. Bromelia pinyuin, called the wild pineapple, is a very common Hpecies. It is valuable as a hedge plant, the rigid, spiny leaves resisting perfectly the attacks of animals. The loaves arc very numerous, 5 to 6 feet long and 2 inches wide, tapering gradually to the tip. Another and perhaps more valuable species is Bromelia syl- ycstris. It has leaves 3 or 4 feet long and iy3 inches in width. The libre of this is believed to be superior to that of Bromelia pinguin." The iibre of a number of other species ban been more or lews favorably reported upon, but so great is the confusion of the species that their botani- cal origin cannot bo definitely stated. The fruits of some of the wild species of Bromelia are used for variouH purposes.
BROME'LIA'CE-aS (for derivation see BROMELIA). The pineapple family. An order of mostly BtomlcHH monoe.otyledonous plantR, or with short ntems, and rigid, channeled, and often spiny, fleshy leaves in rosettes. The llowers are borne in panicles or racemes on flower stalks springing from the cluster of leaves. As a rule the three-parted flowers have highly colored bracts subtending them. There are about 40 genera and 400 species belonging to this order, mo«t, if not all, of which are indigenous to tropical America. Some arc terrestrial plants, living in dry nituationa, but most live attached to treeH, nob a» parasites, but as epiphytes, and they form a very conspicuous feature of the flora of Brazil and elsewhere. The leaves of many are channeled above, and as they overlap below they hold considerable water in their fun- nels or pitchers. This habit and their abundant seed make them especially adapted to their epiphytic method of growing. In the water cups or fmmelB are found all sorts of debris, and in Venezuela a species of bladderwort (Utricularia) often grows in these situations. These plants often send out roots, but it is considered doubt- ful whether they have much use, aside from aid-' ing in attaching the plant to its support. Some specioH show espocial adaptations for the reduc- tion of transpiration from their leaves. This is secured by the presence of a thickened cuticle, or by covering the leaves with peculiar scales, rendering the loaves scurfy. In the case of the common Spanish or Now Orleans moss (Til- landsia usnc.oides} , which hangs in such pe- culiar bunches from the trees of the Southern States, the stems are reduced to threadlike fltranda of a grayish color, covered with scales. From this plant is obtained much of the so-called hair used in mattresses and furniture. To this order belongs the pineapple (q.v.), which is useful for its fruit as well as for the fibre which is secured from its leaves. This fibre is useful for many purposes, and the finer qualities •make the pifla cloth of the East Indies. This in often confused with "grass cloth," from which it can be distinguished by microscopical exami- nation; the pitta fibre is said to be without any twittt. Pita fibre is obtained from Bromelia (tylvestri*, a member of this order, as well aw from other plants. According to Wittmack's
BROMIDROSIS
classification, the chief genera of this order are: Bromelia, Ananas, Billbergia, JSohmea, Pit- cairnia, Puya, Dyckia, and Tillandsia.
BROMELTW. See ENZYME.
BRO'MIC ACID (see BROMINE), HBr08. A colorless liquid with a bromine-like odor, dis- covered by Balard in 1826. It may be prepared by the action of bromine on silver bromate sus- pended in water. The latter is made from po- tassium bromate, which is readily obtained by the action of bromine on caustic potash. Bromic acid combines readily with bases forming a series of salts called Iromates, none of which are of any commercial importance. By heat they are all decomposed with evolution of oxygen. Like the chlorates, when mixed with sulphur or char- coal, they explode by percussion.
BROMIDES, brO'midz or -midz (see BBO- MINE). The salts of hydrobromic acid (HBr) may be produced by the action of this acid on metals, metallic oxides, or metallic carbonates; also by the action of bromine vapor on metals. At ordinary temperatures the bromides arc solid, but when heated they generally fuse and vola- tilize with decomposition.
The most important bromide is that of potas- sium (KBr). This salt is made by adding bromine to a solution of potassium hydroxide, evaporating and heating the residue with some charcoal, the latter serving to reduce the bromate (KBrOj) at first produced along with the bro- mide (KBr). The only salt thus obtained is potassium bromide, and this may then be puri- fied by re-crystallization from water. Pure po- tassium bromide is a colorless, translucent, crys- talline salt with a pungent, saline taste; it is extensively used in medicine, both as a sedative and a hypnotic. It is much used in the treat- ment of epilepsy. The bromide of sodium is often preferred to that of potassium, as it is less liable than the latter to cause disturbances in the alimentary tract. Another important bromide is that of silver, which is made by add- ing silver nitrate to an aqueous solution of some other metallic bromide. Silver bromide is exceedingly sensitive to the action of sunlight and is consequently much used in photography.
With the exception of silver bromide, which is insoluble, and of lead and mercury bromides, whose solubility is slight, the bromides of the metals are more or less readily soluble in water. Other bromides used in medicine are ammonium bromide (NH2Br), lithium1 bromide (LiBr), cal- cium bromide (CaBrs), zinc bromide (ZnBra), and strontium bromide (SrBra), each having its special indication. In general these salts act as cerebral, circulatory, and respiratory depres- sants and find application in a wide variety of diseases, among them being delirium tremcns, insomnia, migraine, tetanus, hysteria, and neu- ralgia. If taken over a considerable period, the bromides are apt to produce a series of symp- toms, collectively denominated bromism, consist- ing of an acneiform rash, lowered cutaneous sensibility, mental dullness and depression, di- minution of sexual power, and chronic fatigue.
BRO'MIDRO'SIS (Gk. jSjooS/uoy, brdmos, a bad smell + I5p<&s, hidrSs, sweat), OSMIDROSIS. An affection of the sweat glands, in which the per- spiration has a foul odor. For convenience, the condition of offensive perspiration from any cause is called bromidrosis. Perspiration, in ordinarily cleanly people, is practically odor- less. The consuniptjion of garlic, onions, whale oil, sulphur,' phosphorus, alcohol, musk, and
BROMINE 8
other substances gives a peculiar smell in each, case to the perspiration. Constipated people have sweat with a faecal odor, and some people excrete considerable urea by means of the skin. In smallpox, typhus fever, rheumatism, and pyaemia there is a distinctive odor to the skin and the perspiration. Other people have per- spiration with an odor like that of orris or bananas. All the odors of sweat, except those due to drugs or food ingested, are due to de- composition of the fatty acids in the secretion. The armpits and the feet are the offending parts of the body in most cases. Internal treatment to relieve excessive sweating (hyperhydrosis) and to stimulate the action of the kidneys is generally necessary; and salicylic acid, boric acid, sulphate of zinc, and other medicaments are used locally.
BROMINE, "bro'mm or -men (Neo-Lat. bro- minium, from Gk. ppwfjios, bromos, stench; re- ferring to4its suffocating odor). An elementary chemical substance discovered by Balard in 1826. It does not occur in the isolated state, but is found in combination with silver, as bromyrite and iodobromite ; in combination with alkalies and alkaline earths, in sea and mineral waters, and in some saline springs; also in many marine plants and animals. Bromine is prepared com- mercially from liquors containing bromides, by treating* them with chlorine, the latter being produced either from chlorides present in the same solution as the bromides themselves, or else in separate apparatus and introduced into the bromide solution subsequently. The crude bro- mine thus isolated may be purified by repeated fractional distillations) and, finally, by distill- ing with potassium bromide, for the purpose of removing any chlorine that may be present. Bromine is thus manufactured from the mother liquors of salt works, especially at Stassfurt in Germany; also at Syracuse, N. Y., Pomeroy, Ohio, the "iLanawha region in West Virginia, and Michigan.
Bromine (symbol Br, atomic weight 79.92) is a dark, brown-red volatile liquid with a most irritating odor. Its specific gravity at 0° C. is 3.188. It freezes at —7.3° C. to a reddish-brown crystalline solid with a semimetallic lustre and boils at 63° C. Its critical point is 302.2° C. It is an irritant poison. It is used as a bleach- ing*- agent and as a disinfectant; also in medi- cine, in the manufacture of certain coal-tar dyes (e.g., eosin), and in chemical laboratory practice. During the year 1911, 651,541 pounds of bromine were produced in the United States, valued at $110,902. Among the inorganic com- pounds of bromine are hydrobromic acid with the bromides, bromic acid with the bromates, and hypobromous acid with the hypobromites. Bromine is contained also in a large number of organic compounds.
BROMLEY, brum^S. A town in Kent, Eng- land, 10% miles southeast of London, on the Kavensbourne River. Besides modern institu- tions there is Bromley College, an almshouse founded in 16C6 by Bishop Warner, for widows of clergymen. Affiliated with it is Sheppard College, established in 1840 for unmarried daughters of such widows. There is also a fine Gothic church and a palace built in 1777. St. Blaise's well (a chalybeate spring) in the palace gardens was famous for its reputed miraculous powers before the Reformation. Pop., 1891, 21,684; 1901, 27,358; 1911, 33,646.
BROMSEBRO, brSm'se-br^ (the river Bromsa
BRONCHUS
4- Scand., 6ro, 0. Icel. bru, bridge). A village of Sweden, about 30 miles south of Calmar, cele- brated for treaties concluded there between Den- mark and Sweden in 1541 and 1645.
BRO'MTJS. See BROME GEASS.
BROMVOGEL, br6m'f6-gel. The Dutch name in South Africa of the ground hornbill. See
HOBNBILL.
BROMTRITE. A silver bromide which oc- curs as a bright yellow to greenish crust as a secondary alteration on other silver ores. It is found principally in Mexico, Chile, and Arizona.
BRONCHITIS, bron-kl'tis (from Gk. Pp6y- Xos, bronchos, trachea, windpipe, p^yx"*, bron- chia, the bronchial tubes). A disease of the bronchial tubes. It includes: (1) an acute catarrhal process involving the larger bronchi- oles; (2) an acute catarrhal process involving the smaller and capillary tubes; (3) a chronic eatarrhal process involving both larger and smaller tubes; (4) an acute fibrinous process; and (5) a chronic fibrinous process. It is caused by exposure to cold or wet; irritants such as dust, coal, etc.; congestion dependent upon kidney disease, gout, or rheumatism, and even constipation, as well as heart disease. The symptoms of bronchitis are pain in the chest, fever at the outset or continuing, cough, generally with expect oration of mucus, at first scanty, later, perhaps, profuse and sometimes contain- ing pus, shortness of breath on exertion, and occasionally, in the fibrinous varieties, the coughing out of casts of the tubes, resembling branches, of mucoid material. Various physical signs are found in the chest; but examination by a competent person alone will determine whether the attack be one of pleurisy, tubercu- losis, pneumonia, or bronchitis. (See AUSCULTA- TION.) The acute form, when of the smaller tubes, may result in death. Many patients suffer with the disease every winter, and em- physema (q.v.) often coexists in these cases. In young infants lobular pneumonia (q.v.) regu- larly accompanies capillary bronchitis, which is also a frequent occurrence in cases of epidemic influenza (la grippe). There are hereditary tendencies and individual predispositions which operate in some cases. On the approach of an attack the patient should take a hot bath, go to bed, and take a purgative. Inhalation of hot- water vapor, through the small end of a funnel inverted over a vessel containing very hot water, relieves the irritation which causes coughing. Twenty drops of compound tincture of benzoin added to a pint of hot water will aid in making the inhalations soothing. Preparations of opium taken unadvisedly may do much harm. The daily cold sponge bath is an efficient preventive of bronchitis; it is best taken when the skin is warm and relaxed, immediately after rising from the bed in the morning. Ventilation and the avoidance of overheating rooms in winter, the avoidance of wetting the shoes — either soles or uppers — and abstinence from alcoholic bever- ages, will do much to prevent acute bronchitis. Abnormally narrow nostrils in adults, and en- larged tonsils and adenoid vegetations in chil- dren, are predisposing but easily removable causes. See INFLUENZA. Consult Osier, Princi- ples and Practice of Medicine (New York, 1007).
BRONCHO-PNEUMONIA. See PNEUMONIA.
BRONCHUS, brfip'kus (Neo-Lat. from Gk. bronchos, windpipe). One of the sub-
BBONTBEL ,
divisions of Hie trachea, or windpipe. Opposite the fourth dorsal vertebra the trachea divides into two branches, or bronchi, which are similar in structure to the trachea itself. They are nearly round and cartilaginous in front, and flat, with muscular and fibrous tissue, behind, and are lined with mucous membrane. Of these
<z, the bronchi; 6, small bronchial tubes; c, the trachea; dt the larynx.
bronchi, one goes to each lung, the right being little more than an inch; the left, about two inches in length. On entering the substance of a lung, the bronchi divide into smaller branches, which again subdivide, until they are no larger in diameter than one-fiftieth to one-thirtieth of an inch. These are the bronchioli. At the extremity of these smaller branches and open- ing into them are found clusters of small poly- hedral celJs, the air cells, which consist of elas- tic tissue, with a lining of mucous membrane, and beneath the latter a layer 'of minute blood vessels. For further details of the histology of the bronchi, see BESPIRATION, ORGANS AND PROCESS OF.
BBOITDEI/, JOHN BAPTISTS (1842-1903). An American Roman Catholic divine born in Bruges, Belgium. He studied in the American College of the University of Louvain and in 1864 was ordained priest in Mechlin. In 1866 hu volunteered for missionary service in America and was rector of Steilacoom, Wash., from 1867 to 1877, when he was transferred to Walla Walla. He returned to Steilacoom in 1878, be- came Bishop of Vancouver Island in 1879, and was appointed administrator apostolic of Mon- tana in 1883, and in the following year became Bishop of Helena. His labors among the In- dians were highly successful, and his influence among them frequently enabled him to be of great service to the national government.
BlfcONDSTED, brSn'stSd, PETER OLUF (1780- 1842). A Danish archaeologist, born at Fruer- ing in Jutland. He studied at the University of Copenhagen. He then visited Paris, Italy, and Greece. In Greece, at Bassae in Arcadia and in JEgina, he made excavations which fur- nished valuable materials for the study of classical antiquity. After his return he became professor in the 'University of Copenhagen. In 1818 he became envoy from Denmark to the Vatican; in 1820-21 he visited Sicily and the
i BROCTSABT
Ionian Islands. He was in London in 1826 and in Paris in 1828-32. Later, he became director of the Museum of Antiquities in Copenhagen. He wrote in six different languages. His prin- cipal work was Voyages dans la Grece accom- paynes de recherches archSologiques (1826) ; in this he treated especially the island of Ceos and the Metopes of the Parthenon. In addition to several smaller archaeological papers, among which were An Account of Some Greek Vases Found near Vulci (1832) and an account of the bronzes of Siris (1837), he also made valuable contributions to Danish history.
BRONGKNTART, br6'nyar', ADOLPHE THEO- DORE (1801-76). A French botanist, son of Alexandre Brongniart. He studied medicine and in 1826 received a diploma, but he subsequently devoted himself particularly to the study of the physiology of plants and also made valuable researches on fossil seeds and on the develop- ment of pollen. In 1833 he became professor of botany at the Jardin des Plantes, in Paris, and in 1834 a member of the Academy of Sciences, succeeding Desfontaines. His principal work, and one that gave him an international repu- tation, was his Histoire des vegetaux fossiles (1828-47). His Enumeration des genres de plantes cultivtes au Musee dfHistoire Naturelle de Paris (1843) played an important part in the development of the modern systems of classification.
BBONGTSTIAItT, ALEXANDRE ( 1770-1847 ) . A French naturalist. In 1790 he visited Eng- land for a scientific examination of the Derby- shire mines and pottery works and, on his return to France, published a Memoire sur I3 art de I'emailleur. In 1797 he became professor of natural history in the Ecole Centrale. He was appointed in 1800 director of the porcelain manufactory of Sevres, where he developed the art of painting on glass. In 1815 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences and in 1822 became professor of mineralogy in the Paris Museum of Natural History. His work, the Classification des reptiles ( 1797 ) , was long the authority in herpetology, and his Traite elementaire de mineralogie (2 vols., 1807) be- came a textbook for lecturers. In connection with Cuvier he published a famous work entitled E$sai sur la geographie mineralogique des en- virons de Paris (1811). He also published in 1844 a Trait 6 des arts ceramiques et des poteries and other works on the products of the Sfevres establishment.
BBONN, brQn. HETNRICH GEOEG (1800-62). A Herman naturalist. He was born in Ziegel- hausen and studied in Heidelberg. In 1828 he became professor in the university, and after Leuckart's departure from Heidelberg Bronn was appointed director of the zoological collec- tion of the university. He wrote several im- portant scientific treatises. His first was Sys- tem der urweltlioJien KonchyUen (1824), which was followed by System der urw'eltlicJien Pflan- sscntiere (1825)". His most important geological work was Lethcea G-eognostica (183G-38), on rock formations. AUgemeine Zoologie (1850) was the first attempt to develop zoology in its entirety with, reference to extinct organisms. He published, in 1860, a translation of Darwin's Origin of Species.
BBOKTSABT, brdN'sar7, HANS VON (full name HANS BRONVSART VON SCHELL.ENDORFF) (1830- ). A German pianist and composer. He was born in Berlin, studied there under
BRCOTSART V03ST SCH^LLEETDORIT 10
Kullak and Dehn and in Weimar under Liszt; made several tours in Germany, Prance, and Russia, and directed the Euterpe concerts in Leipzig (1860-62). In 1865 lie became Yon Billow's successor as director of the concerts of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Berlin; from 1867 to 1887 was intendant of the Royal Theatre in Hanover, and from 1887 to 1895 of that in Weimar. The most important of his works are compositions for the pianoforte, the best known being a trio in Gr minor and a, con- certo in F sharp minor. To these should be added a cantata, Christnacht, for a double choir and orchestra ; Frilhlingsphantasie, for orchestra ; a choral symphony, In den Alpen; a symphony in C minor; a symphonic tone poem, Manfred; and a sextet for strings. An opera, Der Corsar, has remained manuscript.
BRONSART V03ST SCHELLENDORPF, br&n'sart f&n shellen-ddrf, PAUL (1832-91). A Prussian general, born in Danzig. He entered the army in 1849, became lieutenant colonel in 1869, and was attached to the headquarters of the army during the Franco-Prussian War, serv- ing as chief of division. Upon the capitulation of Sedan he was sent to the fortress to open the first negotiations with Napoleon III. In 18S3 he became Minister of War. It was he who prepared the measure providing for an in- crease of the standing army (1887). During his term of office the repeating rifle was intro- duced into the infantry branch of the service, new pension laws were enacted, and the condi- tions of military service were modified. He wrote the following works: Ein Rucltblick auf die taktischen Ruckblicke (2d ed., 1870; Eng. trans, by H. A. Ouvry, London, 1871); Der Dienst des Generalstales (1876; 4th ed., 1905; Eng. trans, under the title of The Duties of the General Staff, by W. A. H. Hare, 1877; new ed., 1905).
BRCNT-SEtTS (Gk. BpoirraFos, Irontaios, thundering, from fipovTij, "bronte, thunder). An epithet of Zeus as god of lightning and thunder. See JUPITER.
BRONTE, bron'ta. A city in the Province of Catania, Sicily, at the western base of Mount Etna, between the great lava streams of 1651 and 1843; 2600 feet above the sea, and 34 miles northwest of Catania (Map: Italy, J 10). The principal manufactures are paper and woolen goods, and the adjacent valley of the Simeto produces large quantities of grain and wine. The town is celebrated chiefly for its connection with Admiral Nelson, who was created Duke of Bronte by the Neapolitan government in 1799. Pop. (commune), 1881, 16,577; 1901, 20,366; 1911, 18,260.
BRONTJS, ANNE. See BBONTE, CHABLOTTE.
BRONTfi, CHABLOTTE (1816-55). An Eng- lish novelist, born at Thornton, in the West Riding of Yorkshire, April 21, 1816. Her father, Patrick Bronte, a clergyman of Irish descent (the name is said to have been originally Prunty), removed, with five young children and an invalid wife, from Thornton to Haworth, in the same county, in 1820. Anne, the sixth and last child, was born the same year. Soon after the arrival Mrs. Bronte died; so that Charlotte, trying hard in afterlife, could but dimly recall the remembrance of her mother. Her father, eccentric and solitary in his habits, was ill fitted to replace a mother's love; and though their mother's elder sister, Miss Branwell, and later
the faithful servant "Tabby," entered the house- hold, the children were left much to themselves. When Charlotte was eight years old she was sent with throe of her sisters to Cowan's Bridge School, between Leeds and Kendal, which, whether deservedly or not, bad an unfortunate notoriety conferred upon it 25 years later in the pages of Jane Eyre. The two elder sisters — Maria and Elizabeth — falling dangerously ill and dying a few days after their removal thence, Charlotte and Emily were taken out of the school. In 1S31 Charlotte was sent to Miss Wooler's school at Roehead, between Leeds and Huddersfield, where her remarkable talents were duly appreciated by her kind instructress, and a friendship was formed with some of her fellow pupils that lasted throughout life. A few years later she returned to Miss Wooler's school as teacher there, and she had, soon after this, some sorrowful experiences as governess in one of the two families where she found employment. It was with a view of better qualifying them- selves for the task of teaching that Charlotte and Emily went to Brussels in 1842 and took up their abode in a penshnnat. When Char- lotte returned home for good in 1844, a new shadow darkened the gloomy Yorkshire par- sonage— her father's sight was declining fast, and her only brother was becoming an inebriate.
It now seemed plain that school keeping could never be a resource, and the sisters — Charlotte, Emily, and Anne — turned their thoughts to lit- erature. Their volume of poems was published in 1846, their names being veiled under those of Currer, Ellis, and Acton Bell; but it met with little or no attention. Charlotte's next venture was a prose tale, The Professor, and while it was passing slowly and heavily from publisher to publisher, Jane Eyre was making progress. Jane Eyre appeared in 1847 and took the public by storm. It was felt that a fresh hand, making new harmonies, was thrown over the old instrument. Henceforward Charlotte Bronte had a "twofold life, as author and wo- man." Over the latter the clouds closed thicker and thicker. Mr. BrontS had indeed recovered his sight; but Emily, the sister Charlotte so intensely loved, died in 1848. Her only brother, Branwell, also died in the same year; Anne, the youngest of the family, following in 1849. Charlotte was left alone with her aged father, in a dreary home among the graves. Neverthe- less her energy never flagged. Shirley, begun soon after the appearance of Jane Eyre, was published in 1849; and Villette, written under the frequent pressure of bad health and low spirits, came out in 1853. In the spring of 1854 Charlotte Bronte was married to her father's curate, the Rev. A. Nicholls, who had long known and loved her. It is a .relief to find that a little sunshine was permitted to the close of a hitherto clouded life. It was, however, but brief. She died March 31, 1855.
All the Brontes possessed ability akin to gen- ius.— BBANWELL (1817-48), weakened by dissi- pation, left a few poems, among which are occasional lines showing the Bronte spirit. —ANNE (1820-49) died too young to achieve fame, but there is nothing commonplace about her two novels, Agnes Grey and Wildfell Hall. — The portrait of EMILT (1818-48) is drawn by her sister in Shirley. Having in mind, doubt- less, her Wuthering Heights (1847) and her poems, Matthew Arnold declared that for pas- sion, vehemence, and grief, Emily Bronte* had
BRONTOGRAPH
had no equal since Byron. Charlotte was, per- haps, less vehement, but her novels come from an aching heart. And having seen more of the world, she possessed the greater insight into character. In execution the work of all the sisters is faulty; but Charlotte's is less so than that of the others. The standard Life of Char- lotte Bronte (London, 1857), by Elizabeth Gas- kell, has been supplemented by C. K. Shorter's Charlotte Bronte and her Circle (London, 189G). Consult also: Life and Works of the Sisters Bronte, with preface by Mrs. H. Ward and an introduction and notes to the life by Shorter (7 vols., London and Now York, 1900) ; Reid, Charlotte Bronte (London, 1877) ; L. Stephen, "Essay," in Hours in a Library (3d series, London, 1879) ; A. Birrell, Life, with bibliography (London, 1887) ; Robinson, Emily Bronte (Boston, 1883); Leyland, The Bronte Family, with special reference to Patrick Bran- \yell Bronte (London, 1886) ; Shorter, The Brontes (London, 1907) ; May Sinclair, The Three Brontes (London, 1912; New York, 1913). In the publications of the Bronte Society will be found a mass of material of service to students of Charlotte Bronte — material bearing upon her own works and life, and upon the lives and char- acters of her gifted sister, her eccentric father, and her unfortunate brother.
In the London Times for July 29, 1913, was published a number of curious letters which passed between Charlotte Bronte and one Heger, a Frenchman who had taught her in Brussels. This man served as the original of the hero of VUlctte, who contributes so largely to the inter- est of that novel. The episode reflected in these letters throws a new sidelight upon the story in question.
BRONCO GRAPH (Gr. ppovr-ti, IrontS, thun- der + vp&<f>eivt graphein, to write) . An instru- ment, and the record made by an instrument for recording the phenomena attending thunder- storms. See BRONTOMETER.
BRONTOMPTETER (Gk. /SpoyriJ, fronts, thun- der -j- fJL^rpoy, metron, measure). An instru- ment for studying the phenomena of thunder- storms, a "thunderstorm measurer," devised by G. J. Symons and built for him in 1890 by Richard Freres of Paris, who worked out all the constructional details. By means of seven pens the instrument permits of recording (1) a time scale, (2) wind velocity, (3) rainfall by hundredths of an inch, (4) individual lightning flashes, (5) duration of each thunderpeal, (6) hail, and (7) atmospheric pressure, as each of these occurs during the storm or the period of observation. The original instrument is pro- vided with clockwork to drive an endless paper band 12 inches wide at the rate of 1.2 inches per minute or 6 feet per hour, about 150 times faster than is usual in meteorological recording devices. The records of the instrument as made on this band can thus be read off with certainty to a single second of time. The records are produced in part automatically, in part by re- cording eye and ear observations. Automatic records are made of elements (1), (2), (7), the time in minutes, the wind velocity as indicated by a Richard anemo-einemograph, and the rela- tive changes in pressure to within 0.001 inch by a modified Richard statoscope. The remain- ing elements (3), (4), (5), and (6), are re- corded when the observer moves the appropriate key or handle. The instrument may be more appropriately called the Irontograph as it re- VOL. IV.— 2
ii
BRONZE
cords or writes as well as measures the effects of the thunderstorm. Important papers on this instrument are: Symons, "On barometric Oscil- lations during Thunderstorms, and on the Brontometer, etc./' in Proceedings, Royal Society, vol. xlviii, pp. 59-68 (London, 1890) ; Marriott, "The Brontometer," in Quarterly Journal, Royal Meteorological Society, illustrated, vol. xxxiv, pp. 207-12 (London, 1908) . See also CERAUNOGBAPH.
BRONTOPS. See TITANOTIIEBIUM.
BRONTOR'NIS. A genus of gigantic fossil birds from the lower Tertiary rocks of Pata- gonia, related to Phoror7iacos and other Ster- eornithes. (See BIRD, FOSSIL.) It was among the tallest of known birds. It "had leg bones larger than those of an ox, the drumstick meas- uring 30 inches in length by 2^ inches in diameter, or 4% inches across the ends; while the tarsus, or lower bone of the leg to which the toes are attached, was 16^ inches long and 5% inches wide where the toes join on." Cf. GASTORXIS.
BRON'TOSATT'RTrS (Neo-Lat., from Gk. fipovT'/i, Bronte, thunder -[- ffaupos, sauros, lizard). A gigantic herbivorous dinosaur of the sub- order Sauropoda, the fossil remains of which are found in the tipper Jurassic strata of Wy- oming. The animal was of massive build and attained the great length of 60 feet, with an estimated weight for the live beast of 20 tons. The trunk of the body was short and thick, the neck long and slender, the tail large and strongly built, and the head remarkably small. The fore limbs were as long as the hind limbs, indicating that the animal walked on all fours, and the feet were plantigrade, i.e., the beast walked on the flat foot instead of on the toes; and the footprint covered a square yard of ground. The bones of the limbs were all solid and heavily built. In this respect they resem- ble those of the allied genus Diplodocus, while they differ from those of the majority of dino- saurs, whose bones are hollow. The long neck of the animal was probably of much use to him for feeding upon the upper portions of the aquatic plants among which he made his home, while his great bulk and small brain indicate that he was a slow-moving beast of low intelli- gence. For illustration of the order, see Plate of DINOSAURS.
BRON'TOTHE'RITTM. See TiTANOTHERruM.
BRONX, THE. One of the boroughs of New York City (q.v.), comprising the section north- east of the Harlem River. It was made a sepa- rate county in 1913 and assumed its own government Jan. 1, 1914.
BRONZE (probably from Lat. CBS Brundisium, Brandish copper). An alloy of two or more metals, the chief ingredient always being copper, with tin next in proportion. Often zinc and lead have been used; but if zinc is in greater proportion than tin, the result is not properly' a bronze (see ALLOY), while lead is never pres- ent in large amounts. The bronze tools found in ancient quarries in Egypt are said to con- sist of 88 parts copper to 12 of tin, a hard alloy; but the supposed greater hardness which would have enabled stone cutters to work with them may have been produced "by hammering, although it has been suggested that phosphorus was used and has since disappeared. (See the paragraph treating phosphor bronze, tinder AL- LOY.) The famous mixture of antiquity called Corinthian bronze probably gained its brilliant color from a combination of copper and tin, in
BRONZE 12
«, proportion of 90 of copper to 10 of tin, without other admixture.
Bronze is peculiar, in that the alloy shrinks and occupies much less space than the aggre- gate of the separate metals. Probably because of this shrinking, involving some interpenetra- tion of the atoms, it is harder than either cop- per or tin. It has the peculiarity of filling the mold perfectly, because when melted it is very fluid — much more so than copper by itself. Bronze is easy to work with the tool. If used in thin sheets, it is one of the best metals for repousse" work, yielding regularly and evenly, and taking from the chasing-tool a beautiful and lasting finish. It takes from exposure to the weather, and especially to the earth in which it may be buried, a singularly beautiful green or greenish-blue color and a slightly powdery texture, which constitutes w3:at the ancients called the aerugo nobilis, the moderns, the patina. It is possible to anticipate the action of such natural causes and to give to the surface of the bronze an artificial color, as by the use of a "pickle," or by exposing it when red-hot to certain vapors. Thus, a jet-black patina is obtained by sulphur fumes. The Japanese and Chinese produce ornamental bronzes, especially vases, platters, and the like, which are colored in clouded, mottled, and veined combinations, sometimes of vivid red with different shades of brown and of yellow. Sometimes these carefully prepared decorations of the surface produce an effect similar to that of crystallization.
^Mechanical TTses. As bronze gives very per- fect castings, and is proof against the destruc- tive property of the moisture of the air, it has been always used in bell casting (see BELL) and much* for the supports and mountings of astronomical instruments and for cannon. This last use was common in Europe during the time of the Renaissance, and bronze cannon of the sixteenth century are remarkable for the beauty of their surface 'decoration, which includes some- times the whole breech of the gun, and even, the rings or staples which were used in early days to support the gun upon its carriage. All the varieties of alloy introduced since 1850 for mechanical purposes are used in the making of machinery and the like and never or very rarely in the fine arts.
Use in Art. Bronze has been in use for decorative purposes from prehistoric times. The museums are full of bronze utensils of deco- rative character, representing a known period of nearly 4000 years, besides much which can- not be dated of the work of outlying and little- known civilizations. The charm of ancient, mediaeval, and Renaissance bronzes is due very largely to the minute artistic and technical care which was given to each separate piece. The modern statuette, group, vase, or dish is com- monly a mechanical reproduction of a model made by some artist whose supervision did not ex- tend to the piece of bronze in question ; but among the ancients each piece received the full attention of its maker, as in the case of a carving done directly by the hand, in wood or in ivory.
Processes of Casting. The earliest bronze castings were solid; but the art of making them hollow, and so saving the material and insuring a quick and even cooling, is very ancient. The process most commonly used con- sists in putting a rough mass of the same ma- terial as the mold into the middle of it, so that
BB03STZE
the bronze fills only the space between them. The central core is first built up of some material capable of bearing heat, and this is brought to an approximate semblance of the form desired in the bronze. Upon this a coat of some very fusible material, such as wax, is placed, and is modeled by the sculptor into the perfect embodiment of his design. Upon this finished surface the material of the outer mold is applied in thin semiliquid coats, each dried before the next is put on. The resulting block of clay will contain a thin mask or coat, say of wax, the outside surface of which is the re- quired work of art. The melted metal is run into this thin division between the two masses of refractory substance; the wax instantly melts and disappears, and when the bronze has hardened and the mold is broken up, the sur- face of the cast will be a perfect reproduction of the sculptor's design. Practically all ancient artistic work in bronze was produced in this way. The process is called in modern times a cire perdue, Svith lost wax'; and it is evident that only one bronze casting can be obtained from each mold so made.
During the nineteenth century the process al- most exclusively used was founding with sand (more rarely with loam), invented in France in 178S. Tlie mold is formed by pressing sand around the model in such a manner that it can be taken off in pieces. These are then fitted together and encased in an iron frame. The core is formed by placing a cast of the statue made from the same or a second mold, which is cut down to admit the thickness of metal de- sired. In this, as in wax casting, there must be many little canals for pouring in the metal and allowing the escape of the air. The most recent process is the galvanic, first used in St. Petersburg in 1840. In this the mold is made from the model as above, usually in some such material as plaster. It is then filled with a solution of copper, which by the action of electricity is precipitated in the mold, forming a statue of pure copper, after which the mold is broken. In both founding and the galvanic process there are always defects due to the fitting and joining of the pieces, which must be removed by skillful chiseling. The results are never as artistic as & cire perdue, which is at the present time replacing the others for the finest work. The repousse* process, in which thin sheets of bronze are beaten into the re- quired shapes, has been used from the earliest to the present day in applied art and for colos- sal statues. See REPOUSS^.
Ancient Bronzes. The art of bronze cast- ing was well known to the ancient Egyptians, who as early as the third millennium cast ad- mirable statues, as well as weapons, utensils, and ornaments of all kinds. The excavations of ancient Assyria and Babylonia have unearthed many artistic weapons, utensils, and articles of the toilet of Babylonian origin. The highest excellence however, was reserved for the Greeks. Even in the Mycenaean period great proficiency in casting was attained. In classic times the more important works of the Greeks, excluding those connected with buildings, were in bronze, and their marbles were more commonly replicas or copies by inferior artists, used for the adorn- ment of porticoes, gardens, or the like, while the original bronze filled its place in the temple for which it was made. As late as the reign of Vespasian there were 3000 bronze statues in
BRONZE ]
Delphi, after Nero had carried off 500 to Rome. The same tendency existed among the Romans. Bronze statues brought home by conquerors, or made by Grecian and other artists in the ser- vice of the masters of the world, filled not only Rome itself, but the other great cities of the Empire. The value of the metal, and the ease with which it could be broken up and cast or made into coins, has caused the disappearance of nearly all of these. A very few Greco-Roman bronzes have been brought to light by recent diggings and explorations; but these are nearly always utensils, tablets bearing inscriptions, and the like. Busts, and heads cut from lost statues, exist in considerable numbers. In the British Museum there are several of great interest, but .these belong mainly to the period of the long- 'establishcd Empire. Foremost among the sur- viving statues recently excavated is the "Chari- oteer of Delphi" in the museum of that place. In the little museum at Brescia, in Lombardy, is a bronze statue of heroic size, strongly re- sembling in its pose and general character the famous "Venus of Milo," and generally called the "Victory of Brescia." In the museum in Berlin there is a statue called the "Praying Boy," but the arms are restorations, although seemly and probable ones. The two or three large bronzes in the Etruscan Museum in Florence are of singular importance, especially the so-called "Orator"; they are not Etruscan in the sense of belonging to the years of the independent life of Etruria. The famous "She- Wolf" in the Palace of the Conservators in Rome is the most valuable piece of pure Etrus- can bronze work known to us; the two chil- dren are sixteenth-century additions. Besides these few pieces the contents known as the Halls of the Greater and Smaller Bronzes in the Naples Museum contain the most valuable survivals of the Imperial period. In the third ,of the halls of larger bronzes there are 42 statues and busts, all of human subjects and of life size or larger, most of them found in the Villa of the Papyri at Herculaneum. The halls of the smaller bronzes contain many statues and groups found in the same villa, and also the vast accumulation of decorative utensils found in Pompeii. Among them is the "Sleeping" (or "Drunken") "Faun," the "Hermes" seated on a rock, the six splendid draped female figures of pure Greek type known as the "Actresses" or the "Danseuses," the busts called "Apollo" and "Ptolemy," and the priceless head which has been called "Plato19 from its sweet and cheerful gravity. In all these works the textile and te- nacious character of the metal is allowed to dictate the character of the design. Only de- tailed description would make it clear how greatly these bronze pieces differ from works carved in hard material, such as marble or close-grained stone, or even wood or ivory. From the hairdressing, in slight and thin cork- screw curls carried all around the head, and held in place by a broad band, as in the, "Apollo" and the "Ptolemy," to the treatment of the thin folds of light drapery, and again to the mere pose of the figure in a position which no marble could be made to maintain, the metallic charac- ter of the design is always prominent.
Mediaeval and Renaissance Bronzes. The use of bronze was not entirely abandoned dur- ing the Middle Ages. The toreutic or embossed statues of certain mediaeval tombs, such as that of Edward III in Westminster Abbey, are well
3 BRONZE
known. In Italy such work was more common, largely because of the Byzantine influence; and church doors, as at Benevento, Milan, and Pisa, were made as easily in a pure and graceful twelfth-century style as the primitive work of Verona and Ravello had been achieved two cen- turies earlier. The tendency of the Middle Ages was, however, to use metals mainly for the dec- oration of objects of religious and civil cere- mony. In this way bronze served as a back- ground for enameling and for the framework of elaborate altarpieces and the like. With the classical Renaissance in Italy, however, the use of bronze in the antique manner for statuary, bas-reliefs, busts, and the like was revived. Such pieces as the doors of the Baptistery in Florence, by Andrea Pisano and by Lorenzo Ghiberti, and those of the sacristy of the cathe- dral near by, the work of Luca della Robbia; such statues as the "David" of Donatello, the "David" of Verrocchio, the "Perseus" of Cel- lini with its imaged pedestal, the "Mercury^ of Giovanni Bologna; such bas-reliefs as those of Donatello in the altar of San Antonio in Padua, and as those which adorn the pedestal of the statue of Duke Cosimo in the square in Flor- ence; such pieces of decorative art as Polla- juolo's tomb of Pope Sixtus IV and the can- delabrum of the Florence Baptistery; such equestrian statues as that of Colleone in Venice, by Verrocchio, that of Gattemelata in Padua, by Donatello, and two by Giovanni Bologna, the Dukes Cosimo and Ferdinand de' Medici, in Florence, are indeed the best known of this period; but they are only a few out of a great number. Mention should also be made of the achievements of the German Renaissance during the later fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, es- pecially at Nuremberg, where Peter Vischer (q.v.) and his sons cast admirable shrines, statues, tombs, and ecclesiastical furniture.
Baroque and Rococo. The work of the bronze caster was less actively pursued during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, al- though there was no time when important works were not in progress. During the reign of Louis XIV an important revival took place in France. Objects of interior decoration — candela- bra, clocks, vases, admirable statuettes, etc. — were cast and chiseled with the highest skill. Gilded plates of bronze were used in the decora- tion of furniture, carriages, sedan chairs, mar- ble and porcelain vases. This art continued to flourish throughout the following reigns, the Republic, and the Empire.
The Nineteenth Century. In statuary as well as in the decorative arts France retained her supremacy. In no other country is the use of bronze in art so common. Practically all the greatest sculptors have worked in this material. The historic styles of the preceding century were those most commonly used, but in late years l'art nouveau was also adopted. Much has been learned from the Chinese and Japanese, par- ticularly in the manner of tinting bronze. In Germany bronze was at first confined to statuary, but in the late nineteenth century, following French examples, it was applied to small bronzes with great success, in connection with the new naturalistic movement. Austria has in late years accomplished much along the same lines, while in Italy the faithful reproduction of an- tique bronzes has been carried on. Bronze casting is practiced with success in Russia, and in almost every other European country.
BRONZE
The first bronze statue in the United States, that of Dr. Bowditch the astronomer, was cast in 1847 by Ball Hughes. This may have been antedated by H. KL. Brown's "Indian and Pan- ther." The first equestrian statue was that of General Jackson in Washington, cast by Clarke Mills in 1852, and not H. K. Brown's Washing- ton (1853, Union Square, New York), as is commonly supposed. Since that time there has been great progress, particularly in the small bronzes of delicate workmanship, those cast by Tiffany excelling even the Parisian in tints.
In several of the Oriental countries, particu- larly where the Buddhist religion prevails, the art of bronze founding has attained high perfec- tion. For the bronzes of China and Japan, which are unexcelled in workmanship, see CHI- NESE ABT; JAPANESE ART.
Bibliography. A good manual of the pro- duction and process of bronzes in art is the introduction to Fortnum, Descriptive Catalogue of the Bronses of European Origin in the South Kensington Museum (London, 1876). An even better and briefer manual, is Ltier, Technik der Bronzeplastile (Leipzig, 1902). Several impor- tant manuals have been published in French under the title Les Bronzes d'art, by Sarvant (Paris, 1880), Laurent-Daragon (ib., 1881), BarbSdienne (ib., 1893), and Harvard (ib., 1897). Consult also Delon, Le cuivre et le bronze (Paris, 1877) ; and, for the historical epochs, Swarzenski, Mittelalterliches Bronse- gerath (Berlin, 1902) ; Murray, Greek Bronzes (London, 1898) ; Bode, Italian Bronzes of the
14 BRONZE
end of the Bronze period occurs in different places at widely different times. In Greece the pre-Mycenaean period is essentially a Stone age, though the use of copper and bronze begins in Cyprus during this time. (See AKCH^EOLOGY.) The Mycenaean period is marked by the use of bronze, though iron seems to have been known before this civilization passed away. Even in the Homeric poems iron is not common and is highly valued, while bronze is in common use. In Italy the Terramare of the Po valley belongs to the earlier Bronze age, but the Villanova graves near Bologna, of about 1000 B.C., show the presence of iron, and it seems likely that the Bronze age in Italy was of relatively short duration. In general it may be said that the duration and development of this period of civ- ilization depended largely upon the accessibility of the regions where it flourished to traders from the south. Thus in France, Spain, and central Germany, with which the Greeks early came in contact through Massilia and the Rhdne valley, iron was early introduced, and soon suc- ceeded bronze for weapons and sharp tools, while in the valleys of Switzerland, among the lake dwellers, in Great Britain and northern Europe, the use of iron was much later. Indeed some archaeologists would allow the Bronze age of Scandinavia to continue to the second century B.C., though Montelius places the commencement of the first Iron period about 500-400 B.C. The chronology of this Swedish archaeologist, a recog- nized authority in this field, is shown in the following table, abridged from one given in
|
B.C. |
Central Italy |
Central Europe |
Great Britain and Ireland |
Scandinavia and North Germany |
|
2500-1900 1800 1000 800 600 |
Copper (and Stone) Bronze age Iron age «< « |
Copper (and Stone) Bronze age Iron age (Hallstatt) |
Copper (and Stone) Bronze age Iron age (Late Celtic) |
Copper (and Stone) Bronze a^e 41 «« Transition to Iron age |
|
400 |
Historic time |
Iron age |
Renaissance (ib., 1908); Bode, Introduction to the Catalogue of J. P. Morgan's Collection of Bronzes (Paris, 1910).
BRONZE, AGE OF. A term used by modern writers to denote that period in the history of mankind when iron was unknown and bronze (an alloy of copper and tin) was in general use for weapons, tools, and ornaments. That such a period existed in a large part of Europe between the later Stone age and the introduc- tion of iron is now admitted by most archaeolo- gists, though there is much difference of opinion in many points of detail. It should be noted that the term denotes a stage of civilization, not a chronological division, for there is no sharp line between the Stone and the Bronze ages; indeed, stone implements are common through nuich of the later period and are not unknown after the introduction of iron. Nor, on the other hand, does bronze cease to be used for some time after the superiority of iron has been established. The beginnings of the Bronze age in Europe are nearly synchronous, and seem to fall in the period between 2000 and 1800 B.C., as is rendered probable by the similarity of the earlier types throughout the Continent; this similarity has been explained by the theory that the knowledge of bronze on the continent of Europe was won from the East, through con- tact with the Phoenicians or the Greeks. The
the Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain, vol. xxix, p. 309 (1899), though many students of Italian archaeology hold that the dates for Italy are too remote.
Of course the Bronze and Iron ages are sub- divided into many periods which have been omit- ted here. It should also be said that European archseologists are by no means agreed upon the existence of a Copper age, many claiming that, while pure copper was doubtless used here and there, the discoveries have not been sufficient to warrant the belief in a general use for a con- siderable period of time. The existence of a Copper age in North America is conceded by all, and there is much probability that such an age existed on the island of Cyprus and in Egypt. Outside of Europe the existence of the three ages is not so clearly traced. Recent discoveries in Egypt show that stone and metal were used side by side for a long period, while some Egyp- tologists hold that iron was not in general use until about 800 B.C. Consult: Ho'rnes, Urge- schichte des Menschen (Vienna, 1892) ; Evans, Ancient Bronsie Implements of Great Britain (London, 1881) ; Chantre, Age du oronse en France (Paris, 1875-76) ; Montelius, Les temps prShistoriques en Suede (trans, from the Swed- ish by S. Reinach, Paris, 1895); Morgan, L'Age de la pierre et les metauyi en VEgypte (Paris, 1896) ; Robert Munro, Palceolithio and
Terramara Settlements in Italy (New York, 1912) ; chap, iv of T. Rice Holmes's Ancient Britain and the Invasions of Julius Ccesar (Ox- ford, 1907 ) ; T. E. Peet, The Stone and Bronze Ages in Italy and Sicily (Oxford, 1909).
BRONZE'WING, BRONZE - WINGED PIGEON, and BRONZE PIGEON. Names given in Australia to pigeons, chiefly of the genus Phaps, on ac- count of the lustrous bronze color with which their wings are variously marked. They are otherwise also hirds of beautiful plumage. — The COMMON BRONZEWING, or bronze-winged ground dove (Phaps chalcoptera) , is distributed over all Australia. It is often seen in flocks, feeds on the ground, and builds its nest chiefly on low branches of trees growing on meadowlands or near water. It is a plump bird, often weighing fully a pound, and is acceptable at every table. — The BEUSH BRONZEWING, or little bronze pigeon. (Phaps elegans) , is not so plentiful nor so widely distributed, chiefly inhabiting Tasmania and the southern parts of Australia. It inhabits low, swampy grounds, never perches on trees, re- sembles a partridge in its habits, and makes a loud birring noise like a partridge when it takes wing on being alarmed. — The HABEEQUIN BRONZEWING (Histriophaps or Phaps histri- onica) is found in the northwest parts of New South Wales in great flocks, feeding on seeds. — Some of the species of Geophaps, another genus, are also sometimes called bronzewing.
BRONZING. The process of imparting a bronzelike or antique metallic appearance to the surface of metal, as copper and brass, ivory, plaster or clay, and wood. The bronze effect on metals is frequently produced by beating bronze to thin leaves, similar to those of gold, which are then made into a paste with a size and applied to the metal. Sometimes bronze powders, such as mosaic gold or aurum musivum, which con- sists of equal parts of sulphur and white tin oxide melted together until they assume the appearance of a yellow, flaky powder, are em- ployed. The many bronze powders of various names, as, for instance, Dutch gold,^ are similar to the foregoing and consist of various ingredi- ents and are applied with size to the metal. Articles to which these various mixtures have been applied should be coated with a clear var- nish, or otherwise the object will soon lose its metallic appearance. There are also a great number of bronzing liquids in which a metallic object may be dipped. They have a wide range of color as well as of composition, and formulas that are applicable to brass, copper, and zinc are to be found in the various technical receipt books. Among the well-known bronzing liquids for gun barrels is a mixture of 1 part nitric acid, 1 part sweet spirits of nitre, 2 parts alcohol, 4 parts copper sulphate, 2 parts tincture of iron chloride, and 60 parts water. The green Patina effect of ancient bronze is frequently imitated by coating new articles with a liquid consisting of 1 part ammonium chloride, 3 parts cream of tar- tar, 3 parts common salt dissolved in 12 parts of boiling water, to which is added 8 parts of a solution of copper nitrate. An antique appear- ance is often produced on silver bv exposing it to the fumes of ammonium sulphide or immers- ing it in a similar solution. Ivory may be gilded by immersing it in a solution of ferrous sulphate and then in a solution of gold chloride; and to coat it with silver the ivory is dipped in a weak solution of silver nitrate, after which it is im- mersed in clear water and exposed to the rays
; BROOK
of the sun. The ivory then acquires a black color, which, on being rubbed, is changed to bril- liant silver. In the bronzing of plaster or clay the figure is usually coated with an isinglass size until it will absorb no more. It is then slightly coated with gold size, and after drying, the figure is painted with bronze powder, and when completely dry the surplus powder may be rubbed off. A bronze effect is produced on wood in a somewhat similar manner. The wood is first coated with a mixture of size and lamp- black, and then a suitable bronze powder, as of Dutch metal or mosaic gold, is laid on with a brush, and when thoroughly dry rubbed with a soft woolen cloth.
BRONZING, bron-ze'nd, AGNOLO, or ANGIOLO (1502-72). A Florentine painter of the late Renaissance. He was born at Monticelli, near Florence, and studied at first with Raffaellino del Garbo and then with Jacopo da Pontormo, who had the greatest influence upon his art. He assisted that eccentric master, who "loved him as a son," in many of his works. He is known principally as court painter to Duke Cosimo I of Florence, with whom he was a great favorite. His religious and mythological sub- jects, both frescoes and canvases, are generally mannered imitations of Michelangelo; but his portraits are among the very best of his day. They depict the typical rather than the indi- vidual of his sitters, and are rendered in silvery tones with clear, sharp outlines. Those of the ducal family of Florence are among his best. They include the portraits of Duke Cosimo ( Pitti Palace, Berlin, Lucca, Metropolitan Museum, New York) , his duchess, Eleanora (Berlin, Turin, Unizi), and the charming little princes and princesses in the Ufnzi and Pitti collections, which are the first independent portraits of chil- dren in Florentine painting. The museums of Florence are richest in his works. Besides those mentioned above, there are in the Uffizi a "De- scent of Christ into Limbo," "The Dead Christ," "Portrait of a Sculptor," and many others. He is also well represented in the galleries of Rome, Berlin, and in American private collections, such as the Gardner collection in Boston and the Gould and Havemeyer collections in New York. He was also a poet and a prose writer of some ability. Consult Forno, La Vita e le rime di Angelo Bromsino (Pistoja, 1902), and Sehulze, Angelo Bronzinos Werke (Strassburg, 1910).
BRON'ZITE. A variety of the mineral en- statite (q.v.). The name **bronzite" was for- merly applied to the entire species now known as enstatite.
BROOCH, broch (variant of troach; ME. troche, OF. troche, a spit, It. brocea, split stick, from ML. troca, lrocus, a spit; ef. Gael. T>rog, awl). An ornamental pin or instrument for fastening the dress, consisting for the most part either of a ring or disk or of a semicircle, there being a pin in either case passing across it, fastened at one end with a joint and at the other with a hook. Brooches were much used in antiquity, and varied in form as much as in modern times. They were worn both by men and women, and with a view both to ornament and use, from the time of Homer to the fall of the Western Empire. The oldest bit of Latin now known to be in existence is inscribed upon a brooch. See FIBULA PBJENESTINA.
BROOD BODY and BROOD BTTD. See VEG- ETATIVE PROPAGATION.
BROOK, MASTEE. An alias adopted by the
BROOKE 16
jealous Master Ford in Shakespeare's Merry Wives of Windsor. In the disguise of this fic- titious character he gains the confidence of Fal- staff, who confesses that he has designs upon Ford's wife.
BROOKE, DOROTHEA. The leading character of George Eliot's Middle march, with philan- thropic ideals. After an unsympathetic mar- riage with Casaubon she remarries and abandons her former undefined strivings.
BROOKE, FRANCIS KEY (1852- ). An American Protestant Episcopal divine, Bishop of Oklahoma. He was born at Gambier, Ohio, and graduated at Kenyon College, Ohio, in 1874. He held rectorships at Grace Church, College Hill, Ohio; Christ Church, Portsmouth, Ohio; St. James, Piqua, Ohio; Grace Church, San- dusky, Ohio; St. Peter's, St. Louis, Mo. (1886- 88); and Trinity, Atehison, Kans. (1888-93). He was chosen first Bishop of Oklahoma and In- dian Territory in 1893.
BBOOKE, EtaBT (c.1703-83). An Irish author. He studied at Trinity College, Dublin, and the Temple, London, met Swift and Pope, lived at Twickenham near the latter, and in 1735 published a poem entitled Universal Beauty, in his manner — indeed Pope probably revised it. In his tragedy Gustavus Vasa (1739) he satir- ized Sir Robert Walpole in the person of Trollio, viceregent to King Cristiern. This play, pro- hibited from presentation in London, was later successfully given in Dublin as The Patriot. His Earl of Essex (1749) contained the line:
"Who rule o'er freemen should themselves be free," parodied by the Tory Dr. Johnson with, "Who drives fat oxen should himself be fat."
In 1745 he was appointed by Lord Chesterfield to the post of barrack master at Mullingar, as a reward for a pamphlet written during the rising of '45. He opposed the penal laws against the Irish Catholics. He is best known by The Fool of Quality (5 vols., 1766-70), abridged (1780) by John Wesley, and republished with a memoir by Charles Kingsley (2 volsv 1859). It is the story of the training of a nobleman by a successful business man. Brooke wrote fables and translated (1738) three books of Tasso's Gerusalemme lioerata. Consult Baker's preface to his edition (London, 1906) of The Fool of Quality; and Brooke's poetical Works (1792), edited by his daughter Charlotte.
BROOKE, SIB JAMES (1803-68). A Rajah of Sarawak, born at Coombe Grove, near Bath, England. His father was an employee of the Indian government. James entered the East India military service, was severely wounded in the Burmese War, and furloughed in 182C. He. lost his commission through overstaying his fur- lough (on account of shipwreck), but coming into a large property by his father's death, he determined to devote himself to the task of putting down piracy in the Eastern seas and to establishing civilization in the islands. In this he was altogether successful, making for himself a rare and unique position as purveyor in general of civilization to a barbaric and fero- cious people — and this too almost entirely by his own efforts. He purchased a yacht, trained a crew of 20 men on a preliminary cruise of three years in the Mediterranean, and in October, 1838, sailed from London for Borneo. When he ar- rived, Muda Hassim, the uncle of the Sultan of Borneo, was engaged in a war with some rebel
BBOOKE
tribes of Sarawak. Brooke lent his assistance and in return received the title of Rajah of Sarawak. Brooke instituted free trade and framed a new code of laws. The custom of head- hunting was made a crime punishable with death; 'and piracy was so vigorously attacked with the assistance* of British vessels that over £20,000 was paid in bounties for the killing of free- booters. Returning to England in 1847, Brooke was cordially received, made a Knight Com- mander of the Bath and an Oxford D.C.L., and appointed Governor of the island of Labuan, near Sarawak, and Consul General to Borneo. In 1857, owing to charges in Parliament reflecting upon his integrity, which were, however, declared not proven by the commission that examined them, Brooke was superseded in the governorship of Labuan. His house in Kuching, his Sarawak capital, was attacked at night by a large body of Chinese, who were irritated at his efforts to prevent opium smuggling, and he escaped with his life by swimming across a creek. He promptly assembled some natives, attacked the Chinese, defeated them in several fights, and drove them into the jungle. Upward of 2000 Chinese were killed. Returning to England soon after this, Brooke lectured in several of the chief towns on the advantage of the possession of Sarawak. Brooke returned to Borneo in 1861, but visited England again twice before his death, June 11, 1868. He was succeeded as Rajah of Sarawak by his nephew, Sir Charles Johnson Brooke, born June 3, 1829. (See BORNEO.) Con- sult: Jacob, The Rajah of Sarawak (London, 1876) ; Sir S. St. John, Rajah Brooke (Lon- don, 1899) ; Life of Sir Charles Brooke, Rajah of Saraicak (London, 1879). The private let- ters of Sir James Brooke (1838-53) were pub- lished in London, 1853.
BROOKE, JOHX MEECEB (1826-1906). An American physicist; born at Tampa, Fla. He was educated at Kenyon College (Gambier, Ohio), graduated in 1847 at the United States Naval Academy, and in 1851-53 was stationed at the Naval Observatory, Washington, D. C. Sub- sequently he accompanied, as director of the astronomical department, the Vincennes expedi- tion for the exploration and surveying of the north Pacific Ocean. In 1861 he resigned from the United States navy and was appointed chief of the Bureau of Ordnance and Hydrography in the Government of the Confederate States. He invented the Brooke gun, and devised the plans followed in refitting the Merrimac (Virginia) for the contests at Hampton Roads. From 1866 to 1899 he was professor of physics at the Vir- ginia Military Institute (Lexington). He re- ceived the gold medal of science of the Academy of Berlin and contributed articles on ordnance and other subjects to technical magazines.
BROOKE, JOHN RUTTEE (1838-1926). An American soldier. He was t>orn in Pottsville, Pa., and in 1861 entered the Union service as a captain of volunteers. He soon rose to the rank of colonel and at the close of the war was commissioned brigadier general of volun- teers for services during the battles of the Wilderness. He resigned from the volunteer service in 1866, became lieutenant colonel in the regular army in the same year, and in 1879 was commissioned colonel. He was commandant at Fort Shaw, Mont., from 1879 to 1888, when he was appointed brigadier general, and from 1888 to 1890 commanded the Department of Dakota, with headquarters in St. Paul, Minn. In 1897
BROOKE ]
he was appointed major general. In the same year, during the Spanish-American War, he was sent to Porto Rico, where he served on the com- mission to arrange for its evacuation by the Spanish troops, and in October was appointed Military Governor and commanding general of the department. From December, 1898, until December, 1899, he served as Military Governor of Cuba, and commanding general of the Division of Cuba, and from 1900 to 1902, when he retired, he commanded the Department of the East.
BUOOKE, STOPFOBD AUGUSTUS (1832-1916). An English clergyman and author, born at Letterkenny, Ireland. He was graduated at Trinity College, Dublin (1S5G), took orders in the Anglican church and, after holding vari- ous curacies in London, was made chaplain in ordinary to the Queen (1872). In 1880 he left the Anglican Communion, affirming his dis- belief in the accepted doctrine of miracles. Among his works are: Life of Frederick TT. Robertson (1865); Theology in the English Poets (1874); A Primer of English Literature (1876), which was revised and enlarged in 1896; Sermons (6 vols., 1868-88); Poems (1888); Sludy of Tennyson (1889); English Literature to the Norman Conquest (1898) ; On Ten Plays of Shakespeare (1905) ; A Treas- ury of Irish Poetry in the English Tongue (1901), edited in collaboration with T. W. Rol- laston; Poetry of Robert Browning (1902) ; Studies in Poetry (1907) ; Four Poets (1908) ; Onward Cry: Addresses (1911); Ten More Plays of Shakespeare (1913).
BROOK FARM. A communistic experiment founded in 1841 at West Roxbury, Mass. The Brook Farm Association of Education and Agri- culture, as it was officially styled, was an at- tempt to solve the social problem through the institution of equality in rewards and the adap- tation of tasks to individual capacities. It grew out of the social and philosophical movement represented by the Transcendental Club, of which Ripley, Channing, Emerson, Thoreau, Hawthorne, Dwight, and Margaret Fuller were leading mem- bers. Not all of these accepted the Brook Farm plan of economic organization, but all were in sympathy with its ideals. The leading spirit in the Brook Farm Association was George Rip- ley. Hawthorne, Dwight, and Allen also became members.
All members, without distinction of sex, had to labor an allotted period each day, either on the farm or in the workshop attached to the main institution. All employments were paid substantially alike. All shared the same food at the same table, all owned a like portion of the property belonging to the establishment, all had equal access to its educational and literary advantages. The society trafficked with the outside world, selling its surplus produce, and educating children at a low rate of com- pensation. At the time of its organization the community contained about 20 members. The number grew in the first three years to about 70. In 1844 the community came under the in- fluence of Greeley, Brisbane, and Godwin, and reorganized itself as a Fourieristie community under the name of the Brook Farm Phalanx. The community became prosperous and served as a centre of Fourieristie propaganda. In this stage of its existence it attracted wide at- tention and was visited by thousands of per- sons from all parts of the country. The com- munity entered upon the construction of a
7 BROOKLrNFE
large building, the phalanstery, which was to furnish accommodations for its increasing mem- bership. In 1846 the building, almost completed, was burned to the ground. The loss was a heavy blow to ^ the society; moreover, the enthusiasm with which it had been inaugurated was waning. In 1847 the society was dissolved. Much of the celebrity attached to this organization is duo to Hawthorne's Blithedale Romance, in which, under the guise of fiction, he has evidently utilized many of his experiences at Brook Farm. Consult: Codman, Brook Farm Memories (Bos- ton, 1849) ; Russell, Home Life of the Brook Farm Association (Boston, 1900); Swift, Brook Farm: Its Members, Scholars, and Visitors (New York, 1900) ; Sears, My Friends at Brook Farm (N&w York, 1912). See COMMUNISM; FOUBIEB.
BBOOK'FIELD. A city in Linn Co., Mo., 104 miles east of St. Joseph, on the Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy Railroad. The indus- tries include shoe factories, railroad shops, iron works, flour mills, brickyards, grain elevators, etc. (Map: Missouri, C 2). Coal is exten- sively mined in the vicinity and forms, with grain, farm produce, and live stock, the bulk of a considerable export trade. The water works are owned by the city. Settled about I860, Brookfield was incorporated in 1865. Pop., 1900, 5484; 1910, 5749.
BROOK'HAV'EiKr. The county seat of Lin- coln Co., Miss., 54 miles south by west of Jack- son, on the Illinois Central Railroad (Map: Mississippi, E 7). It is the seat of the Whit- worth Female College (Methodist Episcopal, South), opened in 1857, and has a public library and a fine Federal building. The city is the centre of an agricultural and lumbering region, has an important cotton trade (between 25,000 and 28,000 bales annually), and contains a creamery, machine shops, a cotton compress, a cottonse'ed-oil mill, lumber mills, sirup, building- brick, and handle and spoke factories. The water works and electric light plant are owned and operated by the city. Pop., 1900, 2678; 1910, 5293.
BROOKIK'GS. A city and the county seat of Brookings Co,, S. Dak., 48 miles south by east of Watertown, on the Chicago and North- western Railroad (Map: South Dakota, H 3). It is the seat of the South Dakota State Col- lege of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts and the Dakota Deaconess Hospital. The leading manufactures are cigars, tow, flour, automobile- tire treads, and cement block. Grain and live stock are raised extensively in the district. It was settled in 1876. Pop., 1910, 2971.
BROOICTTE (named for the English crys- tallographer, H. J. Brooke). A yellowish to reddish brown and black titanium dioxide that crystallizes in the orthorhombic system. Large crystals of it are found in the Tirol, and a variety, called arkansite and consisting of thick black crystals, is found at Magnet Cove, Ark.
BR-OOK/LTBO3 (Veronica beccabunga) . A species of speedwell. It is common in ditches, brooks, and wet places in. Europe. In the United States, Veronica americana, which is sometimes called the American brooklime, occupies similar situations. It is a perennial plant, with mostly pedicled, ovate, or oblong leaves, and bluish flowers in auxiliary racemes.
BROOKIiINE. A town in Norfolk Co., Mass., including the villages of Cottage Farm, Long- wood, Coolidge Corner, and Reservoir, 3 miles
Southwest of Boston, on the Boston and Albany and the New England railroads (Map: Massa- chusetts, E 3 ) , It is one of the most beautiful suburbs of Boston, with which it is connected by electric railroads. Brookline has a large public library of over 80,000 volumes, a munici- pal and several private hospitals, public baths, parks, a school of practical arts, and a tine golf course. There are manufactories of electrical supplies and screens of various kinds. The government is administered by town meetings. First settled as early as 1635, Brookline was known as the "Hamlet of Muddy River" until, in 1705, it was incor- porated as a town under the present name. Fre- quent attempts have been made to annex it to Boston, but thus far have failed. In 1800 its population was only 605, and in 1840, 1265; but since it became a fashionable residence dis- trict its growth has been rapid. The water works are owned by the town. Pop., 1890, ^,103; 1900, 19,935; 1910, 27,702; l&^J, 37,748. Consult Woods, Historical Sketches of Brookline (Boston, 1874) ; Bolton, BrooJdine: The History of a Favored Town ( BrooMine, 1897) ; and An- ~iT"l Publications of Brookline Historical Society.
BROOKLYN, bruklin ( originally, Breuckelen; see below). A borough of New York City, co- extensive with Kings Co., N. Y., and until 1898 a separate city, the county seat of Kings County (Map: New York, G 5). It is situated on the western end of Long Island and is separated from the island and the Borough of Manhattan by the East River, which • connects New York Bay with Long Island Sound. The borough and county cover an area of 77.62 square miles; they "extend north and south about 11 miles and east and west about an equal distance. The water front extends from Newtown Creek, along the East River, upper and lower New York Bay, the Atlantic Ocean and Jamaica Bay, to Old Mill Creek. The borough is thus sur- rounded by water on three sides. The north- east boundary is an irregular line, which is crossed by a broad range of low hills extending into Queens County. The elevation of this dis- trict varies from the tidewater marshes to a height of about 195 feet at Mount Prospect. 'Along the shore opposite the southern end of Manhattan Island is an irregular bluff, rising from 70 to 100 feet, known as Brooklyn Heights. The southern and larger part of the borough lies but little above the sea level.
As a community Brooklyn has always differed markedly from New York — or what is now po- litically known as the Borough of Manhattan — not only in the extent and character of its population, industries, and commerce, but in its social atmosphere. The population of the borough in 1910 was 1,634,351, while that of Manhattan was 2,331,542; but the percentage of native white inhabitants remained, as it always had been, considerably greater (about 10 per cent) in Brooklyn than in Manhattan. In 1909 the number of manufacturing establish- ments in Brooklyn was 5218, and the value of their products was $417,223,000, while in Man- hattan (and the Bronx) the establishments numbered 19,769, and the value of their prod- ucts was $1,417,089,000. Brooklyn differs so- cially from Manhattan in the free expression of local pride, and in the display of a more obvious air of domesticity. Results of the latter condi- tion are to be observed in the absence or scarcity of the immense and palatial hotels, expensive
18 BROOiRLYtt
restaurants, and theatres and other places of amusement, which are characteristic of Man- hattan.
The Residence Districts. Brooklyn has been called "The Sleeping Room of New York" and again "The City of Homes," as well as "The City of Churches." There are several fine resi- dential districts along its southwestern shores, while on the southern ocean front lie the well- known Coney Island (q.v.), Brighton Beach, and Manhattan Beach. The oldest fine houses on the Heights are of brick and brownstone, and a few apartment hotels and apartment houses are also in this section. Along Clinton and Washington avenues, upper Dean Street, and other thoroughfares are arrays of fine frame and brick residences, set in open grounds, with carriage drives, trees, and flower beds, and there are similar districts on New York, Brooklyn, and St. Mark's avenues. Along Eighth and Ninth avenues, in the newer region adjacent to Prospect Park, and known as the "Park Slope," is another inviting residence district. Farther to the south are large sections containing pretty detached residences of less elaborate character; the Shore Road region, just north of Coney Island, has some of the finest residences and grounds in the borough. The electric railroads are chiefly responsible for this development, which may be expected to continue.
The Business Section. The most important commercial section of Brooklyn is that adjacent to the group of municipal and county buildings near the junction of Fulton and Court streets, and extending along Fulton Street to Flatbush Avenue, a distance of about half a mile. The public buildings referred to are Borough Hall, facing a small, triangular park in the angle formed by the joining of Fulton and Court streets; the Municipal Building, the County Courthouse, and the Hall of Records. In this neighborhood are the largest office buildings in the borough (small affairs at best in com- parison to the huge structures along lower Broadway in Manhattan) ; and the Federal Building (inaccessibly situated in narrow Wash- ington Street), a fine granite edifice in the Romanesque style, containing the Post Office, United States courts and other Federal offices. The Fulton Street section above mentioned in- cludes a compact shopping district, in which are several of the best equipped department stores in the greater city. Another shopping district lies along Broadway in Williamsburg.
Inter- and Intra-Borough. Transit. The surface and elevated street-railway service of Brooklyn is privately owned and operated, chiefly by one corporation. There are about 70 surface lines, 10 of which are operated partly or entirely on elevated tracks, besides the sub- way service of the Interborough system (from Manhattan), extending (in 1914) to the Long Island Railroad Station, at Atlantic and Flat- bush avenues. (For a description of the pro- posed subway extensions in Brooklyn, see NEW YORK CITY.) With a few exceptions a five-cent fare, including transfer from one line to an- other, prevails on all of these systems. The service is not uniformly efficient, partly be- cause of the natural obstacles to be overcome in operating so many converging lines over so large an area. The greatest difficulty is that of handling the enormous traffic to and from Manhattan in the "rush hours" of the morning and evening, for virtually all of this must be
BROOKLYN ii
carried over or under the river by three bridges and one tunnel. The three bridges are the Brooklyn Bridge, from Park Row, Manhattan, to Sands and Washington streets; the Williams- burg Bridge, from Clinton Street, Manhattan, to Havemcycr Street; and the Manhattan Bridge, from the Bowery and Canal Street, Manhattan, to Nassau Street. Electric cars and elevated trains cross the Brooklyn and Williamsburg bridges, and there is electric-car service on the Manhattan Bridge. (See BEIDGE.) Former ferry service between the two boroughs was greatly reduced as the result of the competi- tion of the additional bridges and the subway tunnel from Wall Street to Borough Hall. In 1914, 11 of these ferries remained in operation.
Parks, Boulevards, and Cemeteries. Brook- lyn has 30-odd public parks, containing 1126 acres, and 20 or more parkways. In the older closely built section the largest, Washington or Fort Greene Park, is in the Hill district, on the site of the Revolutionary earthworks known as Fort Greene. This park contains only about 30 acres, but has been called the most beautiful small park in the United States. The crest of the hill affords a magnificent view of the first city and one of the finest harbors in America, the navy yard, and other points of interest. From this point the ground slopes in grassy terraces, beneath which are the remains of the American Revolutionary prisoners who died on the prison ship Jwsey. South from the older sections, but near the present geographical centre of the borough, is Prospect Park, the largest of the Brooklyn parks, which takes rank with Fairmount, Central, and Druid Hill parks among early examples of municipal enterprise in this field. Prospect Park is not so large as those of some cities, but its 526 acres contain many natural beauties in its lake, fine old trees, wooded hills, and broad meadows; while its drives, ponds, playgrounds, gardens, and other embellishments have been laid out with taste and care. The lake, of 61 acres, is at- tractive for boating in summer and for skating in winter; and Lookout Hill, 185 feet above the sea, commands an extensive view of New York Harbor and Long Island. The principal entrance is at Flatbush Avenue, and the circular plaza in front is adorned by a large fountain and the imposing memorial arch in honor of the sol- diers and sailors of the Civil War, surmounted by a large quadriga by Frederick Macmonnies. Within the park, near the entrance, is a statue, also by Macmonnies, of J. S. T. Stranahan, the creator of the Brooklyn park and boulevard sys- tem. At other points are statues of Lincoln, J. Howard Payne, Thomas Moore, and Wash- ington Irving. A tablet in Battle Pass com- memorates the battle of Long Island, and a monument on the slope of Lookout Hill, the memory of the 400 Maryland troops who fell in that battle, a great part of which was fought within the park limits. From the Plaza east runs a boulevard 200 feet wide, called Eastern Parkway, Near the southern entrance begins the Ocean Parkway, a fine speedway with sep- arate paths for bicycles and horses, leading to Coney Island, 5% miles distant. There are also, in various other sections, smaller preserves, of which Tompkins, Winthrop, and Bedford parks are examples.
West of Prospect Park, on a high ridge over- looking the bay, is Greenwood Cemetery, of 478 acres, the principal burying ground in Brooklyn
> BROOKLYN
and one of the most beautiful in the country, rich in handsome monuments and mausoleums. Famous men who have been buried here include : S. F. B. Morse, Roger Williams, Elias Howe, Henry Ward Beeeher, DeWitt Clinton, Horace Greeley, Peter Cooper, Henry George, James Gordon Bennett, and Henry Bergh. The Ceme- tery of the Evergreens (about 375 acres), and Cypress Hills Cemetery (400 acres), also, are worthy of mention.
Churches, Charities, Schools, and Libraries. Brooklyn has long been noted for the number of its churches, the beauty of its church edifices, and the ability and eloquence of many of its clergymen. A recapitulation for the year 1912 gives the number of church organizations and sects represented as 49; the aggregate number of contributing members, 603,475, and the value of the church property, $42,531,466. According to this source, the Roman Catholic church had 113 congregations, 448,705 parishioners, and held church property valued at $18,756,000. Other statistics from the same source are as follows: Protestant Episcopal, congregations, 86, contributing members, 25,030, property, $4,714,900; Baptist, congregations, 52, contribu- ting members, 20,726, property, $2,715,000; Methodist Episcopal, congregations, 54, con- tributing members, 19,741, property, $3,289,500; Lutheran congregations, 64, contributing mem- bers, 21,531, property, $2,750,800; Presby- terian, congregations, 49, contributing mem- bers, 18,649, property, $2,550,000; Congrega- tional, congregations, 38, contributing members, 17,990, property, $2,393,500. Plymouth Church, made famous by Henry Ward Beeeher (q.v.), and the Church of the Pilgrims, of which Dr. Richard Salter Storrs (q.v.), another able and brilliant preacher, was pastor for many years, are still standing on the Heights. Other widely known Brooklyn preachers were: Theodore L. Cuyler, A. J. F. Behrends, and T. DeWitt Talmage.
In adjdition to the private charities of the churches, many of the charitable institutions have ecclesiastical relations. There are also many institutions which are entirely unde- nominational, notably the Young Men's Chris- tian Association, the Naval Branch of the same, and the Young Women's Christian Association, each of which occupies commodious and finely equipped quarters. Brooklyn has about 20 free dispensaries, about the same number of homes for the aged, about 50 institutions for the relief of children, several homes for incurables and consumptives, and an inebriates' home. Of the 30-odd hospitals, the Long Island College, Brook- lyn, St. Mary's, St. Johns, and St. Peter's are especially noteworthy. In the Flatbush district are the county almshouse, hospital and asylum for the insane, the last named now a part of the State system.
Brooklyn has many educational institutions, both public and private, of recognized excel- lence. The public-school system includes the Erasmus Hall High School, a Manual Training High School, a Commercial High School, and Girls' and Boys' High schools, besides a training school for teachers, and a truant school. Of the private institutions, there are the Polytechnic Institute, an outgrowth of the Brooklyn Col- legiate and Polytechnic Institute (founded in 1853), and comprising two general departments, the College of Engineering and the Preparatory School (enrollment in the college in 1912, 664) ;
BROOKLYN
20
BROOKLYN
the Packer Collegiate Institute, for girls and young women (established in 1853), consisting of collegiate, academic, and elementary depart- ments (total enrollment in 1913, 674) ; the Pratt Institute, "to promote industrial education** (founded in 1887), admirably equipped for its purposes (enrollment in 1913: day classes, 2552; evening classes, 1672) ; Adelphi College (opened in 189C) has 402 students (both sexes) and 604 in the academy connected with it; St. Francis' College (1858) and St. John's College (1870) — the two last named, Roman Catholic institutions — the Long Island College Hospital, and the Brooklyn College of Pharmacy.
An educational enterprise of great credit to the community is the Brooklyn Institute of Arts and Sciences, an outgrowth of the Ap- prentices* Library Association. General Lafay- ette laid the corner stone of this Association's building in 1824. Since 3888 the Institute has been under the direction of Prof. Franklin W. Hooper (q.v.). In 1914 it embraced 30 departments. The museum building, an impos- ing and commodious structure at Eastern Park- way and Washington Avenue, near the main entrance of Prospect Park, was opened in sec- tions between 1897 and 1911 and has three de- partments, Fine Arts, Ethnology, and Natural History. The Fine Arts department contains, in addition to the original Tissot collection of paintings illustrating the life of Christ, the John S. Sargent collection of water colors, the Wallace collection of Barye bronzes, the Samuel P. Avery collection of Cloisonnes, the Alfred Duane Pell collection of European china, the Kobert B. Woodward collection of ancient glass, with large collections of paintings of the Ital- ian, Spanish, French, German, English, and American schools. The Brooklyn Botanic Gar- den occupies 42 acres adjacent to the museum, and is established both for the purpose of giving instruction to students in the public and private schools, and for promoting original research in botany. The Children's Museum in .Bedford Park is visited by over 200,000 school children in a year.
The Brooklyn Public Library (under a public administration distinct from that of the New York Public Library) includes 31 branches, scat- tered throughout the borough and housed in suitable buildings, about one-half of which were paid for by Andrew Carnegie. In 1913 the col- lection contained about 740,000 volumes, of which about 220,000 were available in the efficiently administered Main Branch on Montague Street, near Borough Hall. (In that year the founda- tion of one section of the fine new library building was laid at the corner of Flatbush Avenue and Eastern Parkway.) Near at hand (at Pierrepont and Clinton streets) is the valu- able collection (about 77,000 volumes) of the Long Island Historical Society. The Pratt In- stitute also includes a good public library of about 100,000 volumes.
Theatres and Clubs. Brooklyn has few theatres of consequence: the principal ones are the Montauk, the Broadway, and the Majestic, besides which there are several vaudeville houses and numerous moving-picture resorts. The bulk of the population in search of such diversion has always gone to New York for it. The borough has, however, several musical associ- ations of considerable merit, and the community manifests much appreciation of the highest forms of that art. The leading institution of this
character is the Academy of Music, which occu- pies a handsome building on Lafayette Avenue, including an opera house, a music hall, and a lecture hall.
The essentially domestic character of the popu- lation, above referred to, is again suggested by the relative fewness of social clubs. Some of the better known of these are the Brooklyn, Hamilton, and Crescent Athletic clubs, on the Heights ; the Lincoln and University on the Hill, and the Montauk on the Park Slope.
Trade and Industry. Brooklyn is one of the most important manufacturing communities in the United States. The main industrial district lies along the East River, chiefly north of the Brooklyn Bridge. Of the five boroughs which con- stitute the city of Greater New York, it ranked next, in manufacturing importance, to Manhat- tan, in 1909, with products valued at 20 per cent of the aggregate value of those of the entire city. The total value of the borough's manufactured products in 1890 was $270,823,754; in 1904, $342,- 127,124, an increase of 26.3 per cent; and in 1909, $417,223,770, an increase of 11 per cent. This increase, however, was much less than that shown by the other boroughs. The -chief indus- try is the refining of sugar. The twelfth census of the United States records that about one-half of the sugar consumed in the country was re- fined in Brooklyn and valued the product at $77,042,997 in 1900. According to the same authority the milling of coffee and spices was also an important industry in the borough, the value of that product in 1905 being $15,274,092. In order to avoid disclosing individual opera- tions, statistics for these industries are omitted from the thirteenth census, but it is apparent that the industries continue to be highly im- portant in the community. The value of the product of other leading industries in the bor- ough in 1909 was as follows: foundry and machine-shop products, $28,137,000; men's cloth- ing, $19,243,000; paint and varnish, $15,743,000; slaughtering and meat packing, $14,744,000; malt liquors, $14,660,000; chemicals, $10,827,000.
On Wallabout Bay, formed by a curve of the East River, lies the highly important New York Navy Yard, generally but incorrectly called the Brooklyn Navy Yard. The original site was bought* for the government in 1801, and in 1824 the Secretary of the Navy recommended that there be established here a first-class navy yard. It now occupies about 144 acres, of which 45 acres are inclosed by a high brick wall. The establishment includes the parade grounds, a trophy park, the United States Naval Lyceum (founded in 1833), and the officers* quarters, together with the manufacturing plant, which comprises foundries and machine shops, and four large dry docks, 694 feet, 564 feet, 465 feet, and 307 feet long respectively. The yard em- ployed, in 1909, 3622 wage earners, and the prod- ucts were valued at $7,032,416. Along the east- ern side of the yard lies the Wallabout Mar- ket (about 45 acres), and adjoining it is the Naval Hospital, with accommodations for about 500 patients.
There are about 35 miles of water front, along which nearly 50 lines of steamships (some of them transatlantic) dock, besides a large num- ber of tramp boats. The Atlantic Basin, oppo- site Governor's Island, has an area of 40 acres, with a wharfage of three miles, in which 500 large vessels can be accommodated at one time. The Erie Basin, to the south, ha* an area of
BROOKLYN
60 acres, and the Brooklyn Basin 40 acres. South of these are dry docks, among the largest in the United States, one dock being 600 feet long and 124 feet wide. Its grain elevators and warehouses mark Brooklyn as one of the largest shipping points in the United States, its traffic, however, being included in that for the port of New York.
Government. See NEW YOBK, Government.
Population. 1790, 4495; 1800, 5740; 1810, 8303; 1S20, 11,187; 1830, 20,535; 1840, 47,613; 1S50, 138,882; 1860, 279,122; 1870, 419,921; 1880, 599,495; 1890, 838,547; 1900, 1,166,582; 1910, 1,634,351. The increase between 1890 and 1900 was 328,035, or 39.1 per cent, and between 1900 and 1910, 467,769, or 40.1 per cent. Brooklyn ranked third, amoiig the bor- oughs of the city, in percentage of increase.
In 1910 the native white population, of na- tive parentage, was 375,548, or 23 per cent of the total, as against 310,501, or 26.6 por cent, in 1900. The native whites, of foreign or mixed parentage, in 1910 numbered 663,583 (40.6 per cent), as against 482,658 (41.4 per cent) in 1900. The foreign-born whites numbered 571,- 356 (35 per cent) in 1910, as against 353,750 (30.3 per cent) in 1900. The number of illiter- ate persons in 1910 was 28,429, or t3 per cent of the total population, which is a lower per- centage than that of Manhattan, but higher than that of the Bronx (4.5 per cent), Queens (4.7 per cent), and Richmond (4.9 per cent).
History. Long Island was originally occu- pied by 13 tribes of the Algonquin nation, the site of Brooklyn belonging to the Canarsie tribe. From them Jacques Bentyn and Willem Adri- aense Bennett bought, in 1636, a tract of 930 acres at Gowanus, extending from Twenty- seventh Street to New Utrecht. In 1637 Joris Jansen de Rapelje, a Walloon, bought 335 acres on Wallabout Bay, called by the settlers the "Waalbogt." The Indian name for this region was Meryckawick Bay, and the Indian name for what is now Brooklyn Heights was Ihpetonga, the highlands. In 1636 Jan Evertsen Bout set- tled on the "maize lands of Meryckawick" and, with others, established Breuckelen, named for a town in Holland about 18 miles from Amster- dam. In 1638 the West India Company bought the land east and southeast of Wallabout Bay, where the hamlet of Boswijck sprang up. In 1642 a ferry was established from a point near the present Pulton Ferry to Peck Slip, and a hamlet called "the Ferry" sprang up about it. In 1646 Breuckelen was organized, and the "Five Towns"—- Breuckelen, Wallabout, the Ferry, Go- wanus, and Bedford, inland — were united, and received a patent from Governor Nicolls in 1667. In 1651 Midwout, later Flatbush, was founded, and the first church was built there in 1665. In 1666 the first Dutch church was built in Breuck- elen. After the Colony passed into the hands of the English, Long Island and Staten Island were called ridings of Yorkshire — Kings County, Staten Island, and Newtown constituting the West Riding — and this designation was used until 1683. In 1698 the population amounted to 509 persons, including 65 slaves, and at the be- ginning of the Revolution it was about 3500. On Aug. 27, 1776, the battle of Long Island (q.v.) was fought on the site of Brooklyn, and the vil- lage was held by the British till November, 1783. During the Revolution the British prison ships were moored in Wallabout Bay, and it is esti- mated that during the period 1777-83 as many
21 BROOKS
as 11,500 prisoners died of fever, starvation, and ill treatment, the mortality on board the iVeio Jersey being especially great, and the sanitary conditions especially revolting. In 1799 the first newspaper in Brooklyn was started, the Courier and New York and Long Island Advertiser. Brooklyn was incorporated as a village in 1816 and received its charter as a city April 8, 1834. In 1848 occurred a disastrous fire, which de- stroyed seven blocks of buildings on and near Fulton Street. Williamsburg (to the north of Brooklyn, adjoining the East River), which had become a city in 1851, and Bushwick (including Greenpoint) were consolidated with Brooklyn in 1S55. A new charter was granted in 1873, and amended in 1880 and 1881. In 1886 the town of New Lots (including East New York) was an- nexed: in May, 1894, the towns of Flatbush and Gravesend were annexed; and New Utrecht, on July 1, IS 94. Flatlands was taken in on Jan. 1, 1896, when Brooklyn comprised all of Kings County and was the largest city in extent in the State, with an area of 66.39 square miles. Un- der the Act of the Legislature of 1897, creating the city of Greater New York, all of the city of Brooklyn as then existing was designated as the Borough of Brooklyn. See NEW YORK.
Consult: Stiles,- A History of the City of Brooklyn (Brooklyn, 1869-70) ; Ostrander, A History of the City of Brooklyn and Kings County (Brooklyn, 1894) ; Powell, Historic Towns in the Middle States (New York, 1899) ; Bangs, Reminiscences of Old Neio Utrecht and Gowanus (Brooklyn, 1912) ; Armbruster, The Eastern District of Brooklyn (New York, 1912).
BROOKS, ALFKED HTJLSE (1871-1924). An American geologist, explorer, and writer on Alaska, born at Ann Arbor, Mich., and educated in Germany, at Harvard University, and in Paris. He became assistant geologist in the United States Geological Survey in 1898, was later engaged in geological work and exploration in Alaska, and in 1902 was chosen geologist in charge of Alaskan mineral resources. He pub- lished: Railway Routes in Alaska (1907) ; Min- ing and Mineral Wealth of Alaska (1909) ; The Mount McKinley Region, Alaska (1911) ; Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead, and Zinc in Western States and Alaska (1913).
BROOKS, CHABLES WUJZAM SHIBLET (1816- 74). An English author. He was admitted to the bar, but became a reporter for the Morning Chronicle, for which he investigated conditions in Russia in 1853, writing The Russians of the South (1854). He was an editor of the Illus- trated London News, and he wrote several dramas, including The Creole (1847) and Any- thing for a Change (1848) ; and the novels, The Gordian Knot (1860) and The Silver Cord (1861). He was connected with Punch, first (1851) as contributor and then (after 1870) as editor, his contributions being signed *eEpicurus Rotundus." In 1875 Wit and Humour, Poems from Punch, appeared. Consult Layard, A Great "Punch" Editor (London, 1907).
BROOKS, JAMES (1810-73). An American journalist and politician, born in Portland, Me. He graduated at Waterville College in 1828, and was principal of a Latin school in Portland. He then became the Washington correspondent of the Portland Advertiser and originated the idea of regular correspondence from the capital. He was a member of the Maine Legislature in 1835 and proposed a survey for a railroad from Port- land to Quebec and Montreal.. In 1836 he estab-
BROOKS
lished the New York Express, published morn- ing as well as evening. He was a member of the New York State Legislature in 1847, and served in Congress from 1849 to 1853. He fa- vored the compromise measures of Henry Clay and during the "Native-American" excitement of 1851-54 was a leader of the Know-Nothing Party. After the outbreak of the Civil War he left the Whigs and was elected to Congress in 1863 by the Democrats, remaining a member until his death. In 1872 he was censured by Congress — as he thought, undeservedly — for his connection with the Crddit Mobilier scandal. (See CREDIT MOBILIER.) He published, in sep- arate form, A Seven-Months3 Run Up and Down and Around the World (1872) — a series of let- ters which originally appeared in the Express. BBOOKS, JOHN (1752-1825). An American patriot. He was born in Medford, Mass.; stud- ied medicine, as an apprentice, under Dr. Simon Tufts ; settled in Reading, Mass., to practice his profession; and there was chosen to command a company of minutemen, which, on April 19, 1775, helped to harass the British on their re- treat from Concord to Boston. He was chosen major of a Massachusetts regiment in May, and served thereafter until the close of the war, par- ticipating in the siege of Boston, in the battles of Saratoga, and in the battle of Monmouth, at- taining the rank of lieutenant colonel in Novem- ber, 1776, and strongly supporting Washington in the so-called Newburgh conspiracy of 1783. After the war he was frequently elected to the General Court, was a member of the convention which, in 1788, ratified for Massachusetts the Federal Constitution; was appointed district marshal and inspector of the revenue by Wash- ington in 1795 ; served as adjutant general of the State from 1812 to 1815; and from 1816 to 1823, when he refused to stand for reelection, was Gov- ernor of Massachusetts. Prom 1792 to 1796 he was brigadier general in the United States army. He served as president of the Massachusetts Medical Society from 1817 until his death.
BBOOKS, JOHN GRAHAM (1846- ). An American writer and lecturer, born in Acworth, N. H. He graduated from the Harvard Divinity School in 1875 and studied at Berlin, Jena, and Freiburg; was an instructor at Harvard, a uni- versity extension lecturer in the University of Chicago, and a lecturer at the University of California. In 1893 he made a report on work- ingmen's insurance in Germany to the United States Department of Labor. He became presi- dent of the National Consumers' League and wrote The Social Unrest (1903) ; As Others See Us (1908) — a summary of foreign visitors* im- pressions of the United States; An American Citizen, The Life of William Henry Baldwin, Jr. (1910); American Syndicalism: The Indus- trial Workers of the World (1913).
BBOOKS, MABIA GOWEN (c.1795-1845). An American romantic poet, born in Medford, Mass., chiefly remembered as the author of Zophiel, or the Bride of Seven (1833). This was written in Cuba, her home after marriage. The first canto was published in Boston in 1825, and the complete poem in London in 1833, under the su- pervision of Southey, whom she had met on a visit to France and England in 1830--31. In The Doctor Southey calls her "the most impassioned and imaginative of all poetesses," and elsewhere "Maria of the West" (Maria del Occidente). In America the work found less favor, though Edgar Allan Poe gave it undiscriminating praise.
22 BBOOKS
It was reedited in 1879 with somewhat greater success. The poem is based on an incident in the apocryphal book of Tobit, telling of the love of a fallen angel for the Hebrew maiden Sara. It contains good passages, but is uneven. On re- turning to America Mrs. Brooks lived for a time at West Point, and afterward on Governor's Island. In 1843 she published the somewhat au- tobiographical Idomen, or the Vale of Yumuri, and wrote an Ode to the Departed. She planned also an epic, Beatriz, the Beloved of Columbus. In December, 1843, she returned to Cuba and remained there until her death. She was un- doubtedly a woman of much, but untrained, poetic power. Consult Trent, American Litera- ture, pp. 276 et seq. (New York, 1903).
BROOKS, NOAH (1830-1903). An American journalist and author. He was born in Castine, Me., and was educated as an artist. In 1854 he went West and settled in California as a news- paper man. From 1871 to 1875 he was a mem- ber of the staff of the New York Tribune. He became an editor of the New York Times in 1876, and in 1884 editor of the Newark (N. J.) Daily Advertiser. He retired from journalism in 1892. His publications include: The Boy Emigrants (1876; 1903); The Fairport Nine (1880 ; 1903); American Statesmen( 1893; 1904) ; Short Studies in American Party Politics (1896) ; The Story of Marco Polo (1896) ; Henry Knoa, a Soldier of the Revolution (1900); Abraham Lincoln: His Youth and Early Manhood (1901); Boy Settlers (1891; 1906).
BBOOKS, PHILLIPS (1835-93). A Bishop of the Protestant Episcopal church. He was born in. Boston, Mass., Dec. 13, 1835; graduated at Harvard in 1855, and at the P. E. Theological Seminary, Alexandria, Va., in 1859. He be- came rector of the Church of the Advent, Phila- delphia, in 1859; of Holy Trinity there in 1862; removed to Boston as rector of Trinity in 1869; and was elected Bishop of Massachusetts in 1891. He published Lectures on Preaching (Yale lectures on the Lyman Beecher foundation, 1877), The Influence of Jesus (Bohlen lectures, Philadelphia Divinity School, 1879), and several volumes of sermons. He also wrote the favorite Christmas hymn, "0 Little Town of Bethlehem." He was celebrated as a preacher and as a vig- orous and independent thinker. His freedom from the ordinary sectarian trammels, his liberal views of doctrine, with his profound convictions as to vital Christian truths, and his deeply spiritual yet intensely practical preaching, gave him great influence with all denominations. Consult his biography by A. V. G. Allen (New York, 1901), Howe, Phillips Brooks (Boston, 1899), and W. Lawrence, Phillips Brooks: A Study (Boston, 1903).
BBOOKS, PBESTON SMITH (1819-57). An American politician, notorious for his assault on Charles Sumner, in the United States Senate Chamber, in 1856. He was born in Edgefield District, S. C. ; graduated at South Carolina Col- lege in 1839; was admitted to the bar in 1843; was elected to the State Legislature in 1844; and in 1846-47 served as a captain of volunteers in the war with Mexico. In 1852 he was elected to the House of Representatives and was reelected in 1854. Soon after the adjournment of the Sen- ate on May 22, 1856, two days after Senator Sumner had delivered his speech on "The Crime against Kansas," in which he had spoken with great severity of South Carolina and of Senator Butler, from that State (then absent from the
BROOKS
Senate), Brooks, who was the nephew of Senator Butler, assaulted Sumner while the latter was writing alone at his desk in the Senate Chamber, repeatedly striking him on the head with a cane, knocking him senseless, and inflicting spinal in- juries from which he never fully recovered. The House of Representatives immediately ap- pointed a committee to investigate the affair, and the committee reported in favor of expelling Brooks, but the necessary two-thirds vote could not be secured for the motion. Brooks resigned voluntarily, however, after making a speech in justification of his act, but he was immediately reflected by his constituents. Some remarks of Representative Anson Burlingame, on June 21, charging Brooks with cowardice and a lack of fair play, provoked a challenge from the latter, and a duel was arranged to take place in Can- ada, near Niagara Falls; but Brooks declined to fight at the place designated, for the reason that he could not reach it "without running the gauntlet of mobs and assassins, prisons and pen- itentiaries, bailiffs and constables." The assault caused the greatest excitement all over the coun- try. The North was fiercely indignant, while the South, for the most part, upheld Brooks, in some sections resolutions being passed in his honor.
BROOKS, WILLIAM: KEITH (1848-1908). An American zoologist, born in Cleveland, Ohio, March 25, 1848. He took his baccalaureate de- gree at Williams College in 1870 and his degree of doctor of philosophy at Harvard in 1875. He was assistant in the Boston Society of Natural History in 1875-76, associate in Johns Hopkins University in 1876, and was professor there after 1883. He trained many of the prominent embry- ologists of the country. His work was charac- terized by its relation to evolutionary problems. He published Hand-Book of Invertebrate Zoology ( 1882 ) ; Heredity ( 1884 ) ; The Development and Protection of the Oyster in Maryland (1884); Lucifer; A. Study in Morphology (1881); The Btomatopoda of H. M. 8. Chal- lenger (1886) ; A Monograph of the Genus Balpa (1893); Foundations of Zoology (1898); Jor- dan, Leading American Men of Science (New York, 1910).
BROOKS, WILLIAM ROBEET (1844-1921 ). An American astronomer, born in Maidstone, Kent, England. He received an academic education, became an expert mechanical draughtsman, and in 1881, with a telescope of his own make, dis- covered his first comet. In 1874 he established, at Phelps, N. Y., the Red House Observatory, where he continued his astronomic studies, and in 1888 was called to Geneva, N. Y., there to take charge of the Smith Observatory. He be- came known largely through his discovery of comets, 26 being the number with which he is accredited. A frequent lecturer on astronomical topics, he has also given much time to photog- raphy of the heavens. He was, in 1887, elected a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society of Great Britain.
BROOKS, WILLIAM THOMAS HABBAUGH (1821-70). An American soldier, born in New Lisbon, Ohio. He graduated in 1841 at the United States Military Academy; served in the Third Infantry during the Florida War, and on garrison duty at Fort Leavenworth, Kans., in 1843-44. During the Mexican War he fought at Palo Alto, Resaca de la Palma, and Monterey, and was brevetted major for his services. Sub- sequently he was on frontier duty in New Mex-
23 BROOK
ico and Texas. Shortly after the outbreak of the Civil War he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers and was conspicuous in the Virginia Peninsular, Maryland, and Rappahannock cam- paigns. In 1863-64 he commanded the Depart- ment of the Monongahela, and in the latter year the Tenth Army Corps in the army operating against Richmond, Ta. He resigned with the rank of major (Eighteenth Infantry).
BBOOKS'S, br<55k'sez. A Whig club founded in London (1764) by the dukes of Portland and Roxborough. Its place of meeting was originally a sporting house, the first proprietor of which was Almack and the second Brooks. Its present headquarters are 60 St. James's Street, and it continues to preserve its political nature.
BROOK'VILLE. A town and the county seat of Franklin Co., Ind., about 65 miles east by south of Indianapolis, on the White Water River, and on the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chi- cago, and St. Louis Railroad (Map: Indiana, E 3). It has good water power, furniture fac- tories, saw, paper, and flour mills, and con- tains a Carnegie library. The water works are owned by the town. Pop., 1890, 2028; 1900, 2037; 1910, 2169.
BBOOKVILIiE. A borough and the county seat of Jefferson Co., Pa., 100 miles by rail northeast of Pittsburgh, at the confluence of Red Bank Creek with other streams, and on the Pennsylvania, the Pittsburgh, Shawmut, and Northern, and the New York Central railroads (Map: Pennsylvania, C 4). It contains the Brookville Memorial Home for sailors' and sol- diers' widows, has foundries, breweries, flour mills, and manufactures glass, various lumber products, automobiles, brick and tile, and furni- ture. The water works are owned by the bor- ough. Pop., 1900, 2472; 1910, 3003.
BROOM (AS. Irom, Dutch fcrem, OHG, firamo; cf. bramble). A name given to a num- ber of species of shrubs of the closely allied gen- era Oytisus, Genista, and Spartium, all belong- ing to the family Leguminosse, and all of them having long, slender branches, along which are produced axillary flowers. Common broom, Cytisus scoparius, is a well-known native of Europe, introduced into the United States, grow- ing in dry soils, and in May and June orna- menting hedge banks, hills, and bushy places with its large yellow flowers, which are on short stalks, drooping, solitary, but produced in con- siderable number along the straight, slender branchlets. The whole aspect of the plant is graceful. The lower leaves have three oblong leaflets; the upper ones, which are reduced to bracts, are simple. The branches are angular and of a very dark green; very tough and much in use for making besoms (brushes of twigs). The leaves have been used for tanning and dye- ing, and their fibre has been woven into a coarse, strong cloth and even made into paper. The whole plant is very bitter, with a peculiar nauseous taste and smell when bruised. The young tops and seeds are used in medicine, being powerfully diuretic, and very beneficial in some kinds of dropsy. They are also mildly laxative and, in large doses, emetic. They are commonly administered in the form of a decoction. Broom varies in size from a very humble shrub to one of 20 feet in height, and when it reaches this size the wood is of great value for the finer purposes of cabinetmakers and turners. Irish broom (Oytisus patens), not unfrequent as an ornamental plant in British shrubberies, is not
BROOM &
at all a native of Ireland, but of Spain and Portugal. Some species of Cytisus are valued for the fodder yielded by the young, tender twigs. All of them are excellent bee plants. Portugal broom or white broom (Cytisus albus), a native of the countries bordering on the Mediterranean, is very often planted as an orna- mental shrub and is much admired for the beauty of its fascicled white flowers, which are produced upon long filiform branches. It some- times attains a height of 15 or 20 feet. Cytisus proliferus albus is an important fodder plant for dry regions. It is a native of Madeira and generally goes under the name Tagosasti (q.v,). Spanish* broom (Spartium junceum) is a native of the south of Europe, generally growing in dry soils and rocky situations, and attaining a height of 8 feet or upward. Its branches are up- right, round, and rushlike, a characteristic of this genus. They are smooth and bear only a few small, simple leaves, which soon drop off. The fibre of the branchlets is much used in some parts of Italy, France, and Spain for mak- ing cloth, ropes, etc. In Spain a fine lace that is much prized is made from the fibre of this plant. In the south of France the plant is cultivated on dry, unproductive soils. The branchlets are made into bundles, dried, beaten, steeped, and washed, in order to separate the fibre. The plant possesses medical properties similar to those of the common broom. A white- flowered species, once called Spartium mono- spermum, but now called Genista monosperma, occasionally to be seen in shrubberies, grows abundantly on the loose sands of the coasts of Spain and produces a similar fibre. It is men- tioned by Barth as growing in great abundance in Africa to the south of the great, desert. Many species somewhat resembling these are occasionally to be seen among ornamental plants, some of them often in greenhouses. The Canary Isles produce some remarkable for the fragrance of their flowers. The name "broom" is not given to those species of Cytisus (q.v.) and Genista (q.v.) which do not display in a marked degree the character of having long, slender twigs. Butcher's broom is a plant of an entirely dif- ferent family. See Plate of CYPRESS, ETC. BROOM. See BRUSH AND BROOM. BROOM, ROBERT (1866- ). A South African morphologist and paleontologist, born in Paisley, Scotland. He was educated at the University of Glasgow, from which he received the degrees of M.D. (1895) and D.Sc. (1905). Cape University made him an honorary D.Sc. in 1912. In 1903-10 he was professor of zoology and geology at Victoria College, Stellenbosch, South Africa, and subsequently he became keeper of vertebrate paleontology at the South African Museum, Cape Town. In 1913 he was selected by the Royal Society to deliver the Croonian Lecture in London on "The Origin of Mam- mals/* Among hundreds of articles contributed by him to scientific journals, the most important are: "Fossil Reptiles of South Africa" in Science in South Africa (1905); "Reptiles of Karroo Formation" in Geology of Cape Colony (1909) ; "Development and Morphology of the Marsupial Shoulder Girdle" in Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh (1899) ; "Comparison of Permian Reptiles of North America with Those of South Africa" in Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History (1910) ; "Structure of Skull in Cynodont Reptiles" in Proceedings of the Zoological Society (1911). Dr. Broom
[ SBOOME
has described over 50 genera and 100 species of fossil reptiles and amphibians, and he i& one of the contributors to the present (2d) edition of the NEW INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA.
BROOM CORN. A plant of the order Gra- mineae, generally regarded as a native of the East Indies and cultivated for the manufacture of brooms and whisk brushes from the open, long-rayed panicles. It is one of the cultivated forms of Andropogon sorghum, which also in- cludes doura, kafir corn, common sorghum, and other similar plants. The chief difference be- tween this and other varieties of the species consists in the greater length, strength, and straightness of the fine stems composing the panicle. The plant has a jointed stem and bears clusters of two and three spikelets on the rami- fications of an open panicle. In the standard varieties the stem grows 10 to 15 feet high and in the dwarf varieties from 4 to 6 feet. Condi- tions of soil and climate suitable for maize are also adapted to this plant. The greater portion of the annual production in the United States is furnished by Illinois, Kansas, Missouri, and Oklahoma, but it is grown in a number of other States. It is planted in hills about 18 inches apart in rows from 3 to 4 feet apart. A yield of 500 pounds of the brush or material for brooms is considered an average crop. When the panicle is nearly full-grown, the stalks are broken over at a point 12 to 18 inches below the head. This position of the panicle tends to keep the brush straight. The heads are har- vested before the seed is fully ripe and while the brush is still green. They are cut off with 6 inches of the stalk, the seed is then removed by hand or machine, and the brush is cured in the shade to preserve its color and strength. The brush is pressed into bales weighing about 300 pounds. The United States exports broom corn to different countries. The broom corn pro- duced in southern Europe is inferior in quality. As a forage crop broom corn is not very impor- tant. For illustration, see BRAZILNUT, Plate. Consult: United States Department of Agricul- ture, Farmers' Bulletin 174. See ANDROPOQON.
BBOOME, SIB FREDERICK NAPIER (1842-96). A British administrator and author. He was born in Canada, was educated in England, and in 1857-69 was a sheep farmer in New Zealand. He was Colonial Secretary for Natal (1875) and for Mauritius (1878), Lieutenant Governor of Mauritius (1880), Governor of Western Aus- tralia (1882), and Governor of Trinidad (1891). In Western Australia he promoted fhe construc- tion of railroads and telegraphs, and in 1890 obtained the colony's constitution. He wrote for the Times, the Comhill, and Macmillan's and published Poems from New Zealand (1868) and The Stranger of Seriphos (1869), a dramatic poem.
BROOME, WILLIAM (1689-1745). An Eng- lish writer. He was educated at Cambridge, took holy orders, and married (1716) a wealthy widow. He is known as a coadjutor of Pope in translating the Odyssey. For writing the notes and translating eight books (2, 6, 8, 11, 12, 16, 18, 23), he received £570 (out of Pope's £4500), a price which he considered too small. Com- ments on this transaction induced Pope to revile Broome in the Dunciad. After 1730 Pope and he were friends again. Broome published Poems on Several Occasions and translated some of Anaereon. With others he had translated (1712) the Iliad from Madame Dacier's French. Consult
BROOK MOSS 5
Elwin and Courthope, Pope's Correspondence (London, 1871-89), especially vol. viii.
BROOM MOSS. See Plate of MOSSES AND LICHENS accompanying Musci.
BROOM RAPE (version of ML. rapum gen- istce, broom knob or tuber, from rapum, knob or lump formed by the roots of trees, and gen- istce, gen. sing, of genista, broom), Orobanche ramosa. An annual plant, 6 to 15 inches high, with many slender stems of a brownish or straw color, growing parasitically upon the roots of hemp and tobacco. The leaves of the plant are reduced to brown scales, and the light-blue flow- ers are scattered along the stalks. The broom rape is a native of Europe and has become estab- lished in some parts of the United States. The plant fastens upon the roots of the tobacco or hemp and sucks from them its nourishment, eventually killing the host it lives upon. Its seeds are minute and very abundant, and from the difficulty of its eradication especial atten- tion should be given to the use of absolutely clean hemp and tobacco seed in planting. The small broom rape, Orobanche minor, attacks clover and alfalfa. For illustration, see Plate of PARASITIC PLANTS.
BROOM SEDGE. See ANDBOPOGON.
BROSBOLL, bros'bel, JOHAN GAEL CHRIS- TIAN (1816-1900). A popular and productive Danish writer, whose pseudonym was Carit Etlar. He was born in Friderieia, and studied painting at the Academy of Copenhagen, but took up literature as a means of livelihood. His works include novels, sketches of travel, and dramas, which, though showing a brilliant imagi- nation, are not always carefully worked out. His Skrifter ('Collected Writings') appeared in Copenhagen in 1859-68 (24 vols.), to which was added a Ny Samling ('New Collection') in 1873- 79 (5 vols.).
BROSIG, bro'zlK, MOBITZ (1815-87). A Ger- man organist and composer, born in Fuchswin- kel, Silesia. He studied in Breslau under Franz Wolf and in 1842 succeeded him as organist of the Breslau Cathedral. In 1852 he was appointed kapellmeister at the cathedral and in 1871 lecturer on music at the University of Breslau. He published a textbook of harmony, and valuable church music, including seven masses with orchestra, and many graduals and offertories.
BROSSE, br6s, SALOMON DE, wrongly called JACQUES (c.1560-1626). A prominent Huguenot architect of the late French Renaissance, a rela- tive and follower of Androuet du Cerceau. His fame rests largely on the Luxembourg Palace (q.v.), in Paris, which he built for Marie de5 Medici (1615-20); but he was also the author of other works of great merit. Among these are the Medici fountain in the Luxembourg gar- dens, the dignified Italian fagade of the church of St. Gervais-St. Protais, and the great hall (Salle des Pas-Perdus) of the Palais de Justice, all in Paris. Consult Pannier, Un architecte franQais au commencement du XVII6 siecle: Salomon de Brosse (Paris, 1911).
BROSSES, bros, CHABLES DE (1709-77). A French historian. His first work was Lettres sur I'Stat actuel de la mile souterraine d'Her- cuUe (1750), the result of a tour through Italy in 1739. At the suggestion of his friend Buffon, the naturalist, he wrote the Histoire des naviga- tions auaf terres australes (2 vols., 1756), in which he described the supposed great southern continent under the several names of Magellania,
5 BROTHEL
Australia, and Polynesia. The last two of these names were first employed by him. His next work was Du culte des dieuco fetiches (1760). It was followed by a TraitS de la formation mecanique des langues (2 vols., 1765), which, in spite of many errors, contains many ingenious observations and conjectures. He contributed articles on language to the famous Encyclop6die of Diderot, Voltaire, and others. During the greater part of his life he was busily engaged in supplying the lacunae in the works of Sallust; and having collected about 700 fragments by this historian, he published, with such interpolations as he deemed necessary, the Histoire de la R6- publique romaine dans le cours du septieme siecle, par 8alluste (1777). Many of his manu- scripts were published after his death, and a complete edition of his works in 52 volumes has been issued (1878-85).
BROTH (AS. broth, OHG. brod, brot, Gael. brot, Ir. broth, from the root of brew, AS. breowan, OHG. briuican, Ger. brauen). A liquid preparation of animal food, which differs from soup in that it contains no vegetables. The usual broths are made of beef, mutton, or chicken, and are much used as food for invalids. The following are the recipes for the production of broths, taken from Curran's Sickness and Accidents (Chicago, 1894). Beef Broth (time, 1 hour). — One pound of lean, juicy beef, one pint of cold water, half teaspoonful of salt. Mince the meat, put it in a stewpan with the water and salt and boil slowly one hour, strain and add a little black pepper, if allowed, and serve hot with strips of dry toast. Mutton Broth (time, 2 hours). — Two pounds of lean, juicy mutton, one quart of cold water, one teaspoonful of salt. Remove all fat and skin, cut up the meat, put it in a stewpan with the water and salt, and boil slowly an hour and a half. Strain, and set away to cool. When cold, remove all fat and dregs, and heat a portion as required for use. Chicken Broth (time, 2 hours). — Three pounds of tender chicken, two quarts of cold water, two scant teaspoonfuls of salt. Skin the chicken (if it is very fat), cut it up, pound the pieces with a mallet until the bones are broken. Put it in a stewpan with the water and salt, and boil slowly two hours; strain, and set aside to cool; when cold, remove all fat and dregs, and heat as required for use.
There is very little nutrition in broths, as stated in the article MEAT EXTRACT. They con- tain mainly gelatin, salts, fat, and extractives; these, however, are easily assimilated food upon which a convalescing patient may rely in part, as a change of diet for a feeble stomach.
BROTHEL, brSTH'cl (for ME., OF. 'bordel, ML. bordellum, little hut, brothel, dim. of borda, hut, from Teut. bord, Eng. board, plank). An- other name for bawdy house, a house of ill fame or house of prostitution, i.e., a "house kept for the resort and convenience of lewd people of both sexes/' The keeping of such a house was a mis- demeanor at common law, as it still is under modern statutes, being classed as a, "public nui- sance."
Prostitution is not, of itself, a common-law offense, and a house is not necessarily a brothel because a prostitute lives there and receives men there privately for immoral purposes. On the other hand, the conduct of persons maintain- ing and resorting to a place of prostitution need not be so shameless, noisy, or disorderly as to be noticeable from the outside, in order to make
BROTHERHOOD
the place a brothel. Usually, however, to have that character it must be a place of resort for persons of both sexes for immoral purposes or there must be several women, perhaps under a common management, to whom men resort in considerable numbers. By modern statutes in this country as well as in England the liability for keeping a brothel has been extended to the lessees or landlords of any premises to them known to be used for that purpose. Modern legislation has also dealt extensively with sexual offenses promoted by brothels. See ADULTERY; CONSENT; AGE; PROCURER; PROSTITUTION; WHITE SLAVERY.
BROTHERHOOD OF ANDREW AND PHILIP. A brotherhood formed in 1888 by Rev. Rufus W. Miller, associate pastor of the Second Reformed Church in Redding, Conn. It held its first Federal convention in New York City in 1893, and by 1895 it had grown into an order for religious and social service in many denominations. These include the Reformed Church in America, the Reformed Church in the United States, Congregational, Presbyterian (North, South, Canadian, and United), Metho- dist Episcopal, Methodist Protestant, Baptist, United Brethren, Lutheran, Reformed Episcopal, Church of Christ, Progressive Brethren, Friends, United Evangelical, Fre^aptist, African Metho- dist Episcopal, and the Evangelical Association. The Brotherhood has chapters in Australia, Japan, China, and England. There were in the United States in 1913 1000 chapters, with a membership of about 45,000. There were also 102. boys3; chapters, in which were enrolled about 2000 members. The Brotherhood holds biennial, Federal, and annual denominational conventions. The official organ is the Brotherhood Star. Con- sult Bacon and Northrop, Young People's Socie- ties (New York, 1900).
BROTHERHOOD OF ST. ANDREW. A Protestant Episcopal organization, whose object is the spread of Christianity among men, especially young men. It was founded in 1883 in St. James's Parish, Chicago, by James L. Houghteling and others. The unit of organiza- tion is the local chapter. In 1913 there were 942 charters in force, representing 864 active and 78 probationary chapters. There is also a junior department for work among boys, which has 543 active chapters. There are about 10,000 members in the Brotherhood proper, and 5000 in the junior department. The headquarters of the Brotherhood are in Boston. It holds an an- nual convention and publishes monthly an offi- cial organ called St. Andrew's Cross. It has extended to England and her colonial possessions. Consult Bacon and Northrop, Young People's Societies (New York, 1900).
BROTHERHOODS, RELIGIOUS. Societies in- stituted for pious and benevolent purposes, numerous in the Middle Ages and in the Roman Catholic church of modern times. They are in- stituted especially for those who wish to have the help of organization and common aims, but are not conscious of a vocation to join the strictly religious orders. In some cases they appear as affiliated societies to the latter, as in the case of the Third Order of St. Dominic and of St. Francis. (See TERTIARY.) In the Middle Ages a number of brotherhoods sprang up which either did not seek or did not obtain ecclesiasti- cal recognition and finally assumed the character of sects with more or less of heretical tendency. To this class belonged, among others, the Beg-
26 BROTHERS
hards and Beguines (q.v.), the Apostolic Breth- ren (q.v.), and the Flagellants (q.v.), who while tolerated by the Church for a while, at last incurred its censure and were severely re- pressed. Other confraternities which came into existence with the sanction of the Church dc- \oted themselves to the promotion of religion and, under its direct influence, to the perform- ance of many practical works of charity, by assisting strangers, travelers, the unprotected, the oppressed, the destitute, and the sick. Typi- cal examples of these mediaeval brotherhoods are the Bridge-building Brotherhoods (q.v.), and especially the Fratelli della Misericordia at Florence, still existing, whose work it is to bury the dead, and under whose picturesque cos- tume are frequently concealed the features of members of the noblest Italian houses.
The last two centuries have witnessed the growth of a great number of Roman Catholic confraternities, both for men and women, based on the same principle as these earlier ones. Many of them are more or less associated with the religious orders; thus the League of the Sacred Heart or Apostleship of Prayer, with millions of members all over the world, under the direction of the Jesuits; the Rosary sodali- ties, of the Dominicans; and the confraternities of the Scapular, of the Carmelites. Consult Leete, Christian Brotherhoods (Cincinnati, 1912).
BROTHER JONATHAN". The name of the best-known personification of the United States, the origin of which is doubtful. The most plausible explanation derives it from Jona- than Trumbull (q.v.), Governor of Connecticut during the Revolution, and a highly esteemed friend of General Washington, who, it is said, was accustomed to remark when perplexed by some knotty question, "We must consult Brother Jonathan." From its frequent repetition the term became widely known, and ultimately ex- panded in meaning to embrace the whole Ameri- can people.
BROTHERS, LAY. An inferior class of monks, not in holy orders, but bound by monastic rules and employed as servants in monasteries (q.v.).
BROTHERS, THE. A club founded, June 21, 1711, in London, for the purpose of advancing literature by sociability and the use of political influence. Besides several Tory peers, St. John, Swift, Prior, Friend, and Arbuthnot were among its charter members. It became, in 1714, the Scriblerus Club, a more purely literary and less political organization, under the influence of Swift. The members addressed each other as "brother."
BROTHERS, THE. 1. A comedy by James Shirley, licensed Nov. 4, 1626, and printed in a volume entitled Si® New Plays by the same author, in 1653. 2. A tragedy by Edward Young, produced at the Drury Lane, March 3, 1752, for the benefit of a religious society. It was not very successful, running for eight nights and clearing only £400. It was written during the author's early life and for a long time suppressed as inimical to his profession of clergyman. 3. A play by Richard Cumberland, brought out at Covent Garden in 1769. It was the first real comedy of the author and gained for him the friendship of Garrick by the flattery of the prologue.
BROTHERS, RICHARD (1757-1824). A re- ligious fanatic. He was born at Placentia, New-
BROTHERS
fouiidland, Dec. 25, 1757, and was at one time a lieutenant in the British navy, which, he quitted on half pay in 1783, believing that a military life was inconsistent with a Christian profession. Having scruples against taking the oath requisite to enable him to receive his half pay, he was reduced to great distress, and ulti- mately placed in the workhouse for a brief period. He regained his liberty in 1792. Dating his first call from 1790, he announced himself, in 1793, the apostle of a new religion, "the nephew of the Almighty, and Prince of the Hebrews, appointed to lead them to the land of Canaan." In 1794 he published a book, entitled A Revealed Knowledge of the PropJieeies and Times, etc.; and, in 1795, an exposition of the Trinity. He was the author of several other publications marked by a strange mixture of reason and insanity, which made a temporary sensation. In consequence of prophesying the death of the King and the destruction of the monarchy, he was committed to Newgate, but soon liberated. Some of his political predic- tions, especially in reference to the state of the Continent, were either altogether or partially fulfilled; and many persons were induced to sell their goods and prepare to accompany him to his New Jerusalem, which was to be built on both sides of the river Jordan. Even men of ability and education were deluded into believing in him, two of the most eminent being Halhed, the Orientalist, and William Sharp, the cele- brated engraver. As a dangerous lunatic, he was at length committed to a private asylum, but released in 1806, and died in London, Jan. 25,
1824.
BROTHERS and SISTERS OF CHARITY. Under these names there exist in the Roman Catholic church widely ramified beneficent societies for the nursing of the poor and sick in hospitals, without distinction of faith, rank, or nation. The Order of the Brothers of Charity, or Compassionate Brothers, was established in 1540 at Seville, in Spain, by the Portuguese JoSo de Dio (died 1550), who had served in Africa under Charles V. The funds for the purpose were obtained by begging. The primitive object of the society was the care of the sick and the reformation of women of immoral character; it was composed of lay members, under no rule. In the year 1572 the order received the papal recognition and was subjected to the rule of St. Augustine. All the privileges of the mendicant orders were conceded to it in the year 1624, and it was then divided into a Spanish congregation, with a major general in Granada, and an Italian or extra-Spanish con- gregation, with a major general in Rome. The political disturbances of the nineteenth century abolished the Spanish as a separate province; the whole order is now governed by a general who resides in Rome. It has at the present time over 1000 members, who bind themselves, besides the usual three vows, by a fourth which requires them to devote their whole lives to the care of the sick and infirm. Their services to distressed humanity continue to be held in high estimation. Another order is the Congregation of the Brothers of Charity, founded in Belgium and approved by the Pope in 1809. They are devoted to the assistance of the poor, the aged, and various classes of the helpless. They have over 40 communities in Belgium, with about 1000 members, and have spread to many other countries. In 1865 they entered America at VOL. IV.— 3
27 BROTHERS
Montreal, whence they have spread through Canada, and have also a house in Boston. There are, in the Roman Catholic church, several orders of female celibates devoted to the care of sick and of children, who are called "Sisters of Charity." The best known are the "Sisters of Charity of St. Vincent de Paul/1 known in France as the *'Gray Sisters," from their dress. They were first called into existence in France in 1631, by St. Vincent de Paul (born 1576), greatly assisted by the noble-hearted and self- devoted widow, Madame Louise (de Marillac) Le Gras. The Archbishop of Paris raised the society into an order, "The Daughters of Divine Love," and its rule was confirmed by Pope Clement IX in 1668. In 1789 it already num- bered 426 convents in France, besides a few in Switzerland and Spain. The French Revolution sorely interrupted the abundant and benevolent labors of the Sisters of Charity by the suppres- sion and proscription of their convents in France; but Napoleon restored the order in 1807 by the convocation of a general chapter of the scattered sisters, under the presidency of the Empress mother and by the grant of the neces- sary funds. The Sisters of Charity of St. Vin- cent de Paul were introduced into the United States by Elizabeth Ann Seton, at Emmitsburg, Md., in 1809. At first the American Sisters' rule was a frank adaptation of the French, but they were independent ; but since 1850 they have been united to the French body. In 1846 the N"ew York branch (opened 1817) was made a separate community with 33 members. The present mother house is at Mount-Saint-Vincent- on-Hudson, which in 1910 became the College of Mt. St. Vincent. Its 1440 sisters (1914) have under their care 26 academies and high schools, 94 parochial schools, including 11 outside of the New York diocese, besides various charitable in- stitutions. See SISTERHOODS.
BROTHERS ANT> SISTERS OP THE FREE SPIRIT. A sect which sprang up along the Rhine toward the beginning of the thirteenth century and afterward spread into France and Italy. It based its peculiar tenets on the scrip- tural doctrine that "where the Spirit of the Lord is, there is liberty." Misconceiving the true nature of spiritual freedom, the members of this sect conceived themselves released not only from ecclesiastical discipline, but also from the com- monest obligations of morality. They set aside the marriage tie and indulged in licentiousness. A few even maintained the old Manichsean doc- trine that the deeds of the body could not pos- sibly affect the soul. Intellectually they are said to have been inclined to Pantheism tinder the teachings of Amalric of BSne (q.v.). The synods of Cologne in 1306 and of Treves in 1310 decreed their suppression, and in the persecu- tions which followed they seem to have been completely dispersed, although a few traces of their influence could be found as late as the sixteenth century, for example, among the so- called Libertines of Geneva.
BROTHERS OF COMOffOZST LIFE (also called BBOTHERS OF GOOD WILT,, and HIEBONY- MITES, or GREGOBIANS, from their patron saints, Jerome and Gregory the Great). A fraternity founded at Deventer about 1376 by Gerhard Groote (q.v.), whose successor was Florentius Radewin (born 1350, at Leerdam in Holland; died 1400) . Thomas It Kempis, who was asso- ciated with Radewin, wrote the lives of both these founders. The society grew very rapidly,
BROTHERS
and under Gerhard's instructions helped to found several houses of Canons Regular of St. Augus- tine with which it was allied. But the original society, which professed to be a copy of the earliest Christian communities, was composed of persons who desired to live a devout and ascetic life in community without formal vows. Community of goods, industry, care for the edu- cation of the young, and a tendency to promote reading of the Scriptures and public prayers in the vernacular, are among their characteristics. Despite the opposition of some of the older com- munities^ they were recognized by several Popes and by the Council of Constance (1414-18). They became most numerous in the Netherlands and Germany, nearly every large town having one or more of their Chouses, but spread also to Italy and Portugal, so that by 1430 they reckoned more than 130 societies. The last was founded at Cambrai in 1505. They seem to have decayed after the outbreak of the Reformation, which carried to more extreme lengths what had been distinctive principles of theirs. A number of the brothers joined the reforming movement. Some of their educational institutions were taken over by the Jesuits. The most distin- guished members of the society were Thomas a Kempis (q.v.)., Gerhard Zerbold of Zutphen, and the learned Cardinal Nicholas Cusa. Consult Kettlewell, Thomas a Kempis and the Brothers of Common Life (London, 1884).
BROTHERS OF THE CHRISTIAN" SCHOOLS. An order, commonly called Chris- tian Brothers, established by St. Jean Baptiste de la Salle at Rheims in 1684 and sanctioned by Pope Benedict XIII in 1725, having for its object the furnishing of the poor with instruction.
The brothers take the three vows of religion, poverty, chastity, and obedience, but do not enter holy orders. By preference, they take charge of elementary schools, but also devote themselves to higher educational work in colleges and in technical and professional schools. They main- tain institutions in most countries of Europe as well as in the United States, Canada, India, Egypt, South Africa, and Australia. In 1905 the brotherhood had 14,000 members, mostly resident in Europe. In the United States the brothers conduct parochial schools, normal insti- tutes, and colleges, with a teaching staff of 1200. When religious teaching orders were suppressed in France in 1904, the brothers' schools were closed and their property confiscated by the government, but they established other schools near the borders of France, in which they tried to cany on part of their French work. See LA SALLE, JEAN BAPTISTE DE.
BROTTOM*. See SKELTON and BBOTTON.
BBOTTCKERE, broo'kar', CHABLES MABIE JOSEPH GHISLAIN DE (1796-1860), A Belgian statesman, born in Bruges. He entered the artillery service and fought at Waterloo. In 1826 lie was elected deputy to the States-General from the province of Limburg. Here he was a prominent advocate of Belgian independence. He was Minister of Finance for the Provisional Government, and after the establishment of the representative monarchy was appointed by Leo- pold I Minister of the Interior ( 1831 ) and soon afterward Minister of War. He reorganized the army, but was attacked on the ground of ex- travagant expenditures, and resigned (1832). He was subsequently director of the mint, a professor in the free University of Brussels, and burgomaster of that city. He is author of
28 BBOtTGKK
Principes generauts d'economie politique (1851). Consult the Life by Juste (Brussels, 1868).
BROTJCKEBE, HENEI MABIE JOSEPH GHIS- LAIN DE (1801-91). A Belgian statesman, born in Briigge. He became an advocate, was elected to the National Congress, and represented Brussels in the Chamber of Deputies from 1833 to 1848. In 1840 he became Governor of Ant- werp, in 1844 of Lie"ge, and from 1849 to 1852 was Belgian Minister at the papal and other Italian courts. He was Minister of Foreign Affairs in the so-called "Ministry of Concilia- tion," formed after the overthrow of the Liberals, and in that capacity did much to restore friendly relations between Belgium and France. At one time he was also councilor of the Brussels Court of Appeals and in 1855-70 represented Mons as a Liberal deputy.
BROTJQH, brui, FANNY (1854-1914). An English actress, niece -of Lionel Brough (q.v.). She made her de"but in Manchester in 1869, when quite young, and appeared in London in 1870, as Fernande, at the ot. James's Theatre. For a time she became a leading member of the Oaste company and otherwise has also toured exten- sively in the provinces. Among her London en- gagements have been those in Harvest ( Princess's Theatre, 1886) ; Civil War (with Mrs. Brown Potter at the Gaiety Theatre, 1887); Little Lord Fauntleroy (Terry's, 1888); Dr. Bill (Avenue, 1890); The Henrietta (ib., 1891); Mrs. Othello (Toole's Theatre, 1893) : The Eider- down Quilt (1896). She has also played in the United States, where, in 1900, she appeared as Mrs. Reginald Mainwaring, Sr., in the produc- tion of My Daughter-in-Law (Lyceum, New York). In 1901 she appeared in the private performance of Mrs. Warren's Profession at the New Lyric Club. Of late years she has been much interested in the movement to improve the conditions of life for actresses.
BROTTGH, JOHN (1811-65). A famous Gov- ernor of Ohio. He was born in Ohio and, as a printer's apprentice, earned his way through the State University. He published several Demo- cratic journals, held minor political posts, and was regarded as the ablest speaker of his party in the State. In 1864 he was nominated for the Governorship of Ohio by the Republican Union party, and was elected over Clement L. Val- landigham (q.v.) by the largest majority ever given for a governor up to that time. As a governor he was remarkably efficient, and though holding office only during a part of the Civil War period, is generally called "the war Gover- nor" of Ohio. Consult 0. C. Hooper, "John Brough" in OMo Archcsological and Historical Society Publications, vol. xiii (1904), and E. Erwin, "Birthplace of John Brough," ib., vol. xvii (1908).
BROTJGH, LIONEL (1836-1909). An English comedian, born at Pontypool, Monmouthshire. He was a son of Barnabas Brough, a dramatic author, and a brother of William and Robert, the "Brothers Brough." In his early life he was a journalist, beginning in a subordinate position, in the service of the Illustrated London News, and being afterward on the Daily Telegraph, of which he published the first issue. He made his first appearance on the stage in 1854, at the Lyceum, in Prince Pretty Pet, and continued his connection with the theatre for four years. In 1858 he accepted a position on the staff of the Morning Star, which he held for five years. He next gave "ghost entertainments" at the Poly-
BROUGHAM a
technic Institution and in the provinces. His acting created such a favorable impression that in 1864 he was given a regular engagement at the Prince of Wales Theatre, Liverpool, and thereafter devoted himself permanently to the drama. In his long subsequent experience, which has included tours in the United States and South Africa, he has gained popularity in a great variety of comic and burlesque r6les, one ->f the best known being that of Tony Lumpkin in She Stoops to Conquer, which he has played nearly 800 times. Among his other favorite parts have been those of Paul Pry, Capt. John Smith in La belle sauvage, and Black Brandon in My Poll and My Partner Joe. In 1872 he was stage manager of the huge spectacular pro- duction of Babil and Bijou, at the Covent Garden Theatre. More recently he was for several years under the management of Beerbohm Tree, of the Haymarket and Her Majesty's theatres, appear- ing as the Laird in Trilby (1895) and in other of Mr. Tree's plays, both in England and America. In 1901 he was at the Haymarket in Sweet Nell of Old Drury and in 1906 at Drury Lane in The Bondman.
BROUGHAM. See CABBIAGE.
BROUGHAM, brSc^am or broom, HJSNBY PETEB, BAROX BEOUQHAM AND VATJX (1778- 1868). A British jurist, orator, statesman, and scientist, descendant of an ancient Westmoreland family. He was born in Edinburgh, Sept. 19, 1778. On the maternal side he was a grand- nephew of the historian Robertson. He exhibited signs of precocious talent and energy and at an early age was compared to the "admirable Crich- ton." He was a brilliant scholar, both at the Edinburgh High School and at the university, at the age of 17 sending a paper, Observations on Phenomena of Light, to the Royal Society, which was read and printed in its Transactions. He spent some time in traveling on the Conti- nent and in 1800 was admitted to the Scottish bar. In 1802, with Jeffrey, Homer, and Sydney Smith, he founded 'the Edinburgh Review and contributed 80 of its most powerful articles to the first 20 numbers. His liberal political views militated against his advancement in Scotland, and a reputation for eccentricity and indiscre- tion excluded him from any legal practice except the unremunerative work of the criminal courts. After seven years of this practice he sought a better field and in 1808 passed at the English bar.
In London Brougham first attracted notice at the bar of the House of Commons as counsel for the Liverpool merchants who petitioned against certain orders-in-council. In 1810 he entered Parliament and soon after brought in and carried an act making participation in the slave trade felony. He was welcomed by the Opposition leaders as a powerful assistant in their attacks upon the government. He succeeded in carrying the repeal of the orders-in-eouncil shortly before the general election of 1812 and contested the membership for Liverpool against Canning. He was defeated, and remained without a seat in Parliament till 1816, when he was returned for Winchelsea. He established a reputation in the law courts by speeches of great ability in the defense of persons prosecuted for libel by the crown. His most famous appearance as an advocate was in defense of Queen Caroline in 1820. His eloquence and boldness forfeited him the favor of the crown, but gained him that of the people, and between 1820 and 1830 Brougham
g BROUGHAM
was the popular idol. He made good use of his power. In 1822 he supported, though in vain, a scheme of national education, and to his activity was due in great measure the establishment of the London University, of the first Mechanics3 Institute, and of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge. In 1830 Brougham deliv- ered a powerful speech against slavery, and in consequence of it was returned as a member for York. The aristocratically disposed Whigs would have excluded him from the Reform min- istry of Earl Grey; but, in addition to enormous popularity, he was virtually their leader in debate in the Commons and was indispensable. The same year, after various intrigues, he was offered the appointment of Lord Chancellor and a peerage as Baron Brougham and Vaux, which he accepted against his interests and inclina- tions. He assisted materially in carrying the great measures proposed by the Liberal minis- ters. He, however, developed eccentricity and by arrogance and self-importance shared in the general unpopularity which afterward attached to the ministry. When it was dismissed by William IV in 1834, Brougham left office, never to return. After that time he held in the Upper House a position analogous to that formerly held by him in the Commons, criticising freely the conduct of successive administrations, but steadily forwarding every measure for social progress.
He is best remembered as a law reformer. In 1827, in a memorable speech which occupied six hours in delivery, he enumerated the defects in nearly every branch of English law and made proposals for dealing with law reform on a proper scale. Among the measures proposed were bills for the codification of the criminal law, for the establishment in England of a system of public prosecutors, and for the giving of compensation to parties acquitted. Lord Brougham's acts and bills touching on law reform, as well as those regarding the slave trade, education, and other public questions, were collected and published by Sir J. E. Eardly- Wilmot (London, 1857). The volume forms a fitting monument to the activity, perseverance, and public spirit of the man.
As an orator and parliamentary debater, among his contemporaries he was inferior only to Canning. His speeches, however, had too large an admixture of exciting elements; argu- ment was mingled with fiery declamation; ridicule, sarcasm, invective, were freely used; and these he employed with a vehemence and energy that at times carried him beyond bounds. He possessed the power of ready, rapid, and forcible diction. Brougham also won repute in other fields. He cultivated the mathematical and physical sciences and ventured upon the domain of metaphysics and even of theology. His miscellaneous writings upon an incredible variety of subjects served the purposes of the moment and display great powers of rapid com- prehension and nervous, clear exposition, but contain few new truths in politics or morals and no original discoveries in science. Brougham acquired the honors due to men of letters and was successively made lord, rector of Glasgow University, president of University College, Lon- don, member of the Institute of France, chancel- lor of the University of Edinburgh, and lastly, D.CX. of Oxford.
During and subsequent to Ms chancellorship his public appearances in a little carriage
BROtTGSAM 3
specially built for him excited curiosity. This vehicle became associated with his name and was the forerunner of the modern "brougham." When not engaged in Parliament, Lord Brougham resided chiefly at Cannes, in the south of France. The growth and prosperity of this seaside resort is mainly due to Brougham, and he is kept in remembrance by a monument erected by the grateful inhabitants. He died there, May 7, 1868. He left a memoir of his Life and Times (3 vols., New York, 1871). Written in his old age, it contains exaggerated statements; while the partisan tone of his biographers is also unreliable. Consult his Works (11 vols., 1855-62), and Campbell, Lives of Lord Lyndhurst and Lord Brougham (Lon- don, 1869). Brougham's letters to James Loch, one of his early friends, were edited by R. H. M. Buddie Atkinson and G. A. Jackson and privately printed in London in 1908.
BROTTGHAM, JOHN (isio-so). An Irish.
actor and playwright. He was born in Dublin, May 9, 1810. Educated as a surgeon, a reverse of the family fortunes led him to the London stage in 1830, where he achieved success as an actor and writer of light burlesque and col- laborated with Dion Boucicault in the comedy London Assurance. For a time he managed the London Lyceum, but moved in 1842 to the United States, where he became a member of the stock company of Burton's Theatre, in New York, for which he wrote several now-forgotten comedies. He then undertook the management of Niblo's Garden, and in 1850 opened Brougham's Lyceum (later Wallack's Theatre), an unsuccessful venture. Then he became manager of the Old Bowery Theatre and finally accepted an engagement at Wallack's and soon after at Burton's. For all these theatres he wrote dramas of ephemeral interest, such as Playing with Fire and The Game of Love. The years of the Civil War he passed in England. Returning to New York, he made another un- successful attempt in theatrical management. His last appearance on the stage was at Booth's Theatre, Oct. 25, 1879, and he died June 7, 1880, in New York City. He was the founder of the New York Lotos Club and for some time its president. He also launched a short-lived comic paper, The Lantern (1852), and published two volumes of miscellanies, A Basket of Chips (1855) and The Bunsby Papers. In all, he wrote about 100 plays, none of them noteworthy. BROUGHTON, brou'ton, HUGH (1549-1612). A Protestant Bible scholar. He was born at Owlbury, Shropshire, England, and educated at Cambridge. At an early age he distinguished himself as a Hebrew scholar. He was a Puritan preacher in London for a while, but deemed it prudent to retire to the Continent in 1589, because the bishops thought his views dangerous. Henceforth he went back and forth and from 1603 to 1611 was pastor of the English congre- gation at Middelburg, Holland. He died in Lon- don, Aug. 4, 1612. Though as early as 1593 he had projected a new translation of the Bible, and his fitness for the work was universally acknowledged, he was given no part in King James's Version. This was a great disappoint- ment to him, and he criticised the version un- sparingly. John Lightfoot, a still greater Hebrew scholar, edited his literary remains, with a life f London, 1662).
BROTTGHTOW, brou'ton, JOHN CAM HOB- HOUSE, BARON (1786-1869). An English states-
> BROTJSSA
man and writer, the friend of Byron. He was born near Bristol, June 27, 1786. He was edu- cated at Westminster and at Cambridge, where, in 1808, he obtained both the Hulsean prize and his BA. degree, graduating M.A. in 1811. In 1809 he visited Spain, Portugal, Albania, Greece, and Turkey, witli Byron. In 1813 he followed the allied armies and was present at the battle of Dresden and at Paris when Louis XVIII returned in 1814. When Napoleon escaped from Elba, Hobhouse again sought Paris, and the following year published the Hundred Days in Paris. The work, of Napoleonistic sympathies, gave great offense both in England and France. The translator and printer in Paris were sen- tenced to fine and imprisonment for an "atrocious libel." In 1816 he joined Byron near Geneva, and together they visited Venice and Rome. Early in 1819 he unsuccessfully con- tested the parliamentary borough of West- minster, but the following year he was elected by a large majority, his three months' imprison- ment in Newgate for breach of privilege of the House of Commons through the publication of a political pamphlet having brought him popular sympathy. For 12 years he was an advocate of liberal measures, among them the repeal of the Test and Corporations acts and Roman Catholic emancipation. In 1831 he succeeded to his father's baronetcy, and in the same year was Secretary of War in the Grey ministry. Sub- sequently he was in the cabinet of Lord Melbourne and Lord John Russell as Chief Com- missioner of Woods and Forests and President of the Board of Control. In 1851 he -was raised to the peerage and created Baron Broughton. At his death, June 3, 1869, the title became extinct, while the baronetcy passed to his nephew. Lord Broughton published: Imitations and Translations from the Classics (1809); Journey through Albania and Other Provinces of Turkey (1812) ; Historical Illustrations of the Fourth Canto of Childe Harold (1818). As Byron's intimate friend he was dissuaded from replying to Lady Byron's Remarks, but wrote a manuscript, now in possession of Lady Dor- chester, containing a "full and scrupulously accurate account of the separation, to be used if necessary/* The British Museum has his diary, which he desired to be left unopened till 1900. Consult his Recollections of a Long Life, edited by his daughter Lady Dorchester (London, 1909).
BROUGHTON, PHYLLIS (?-192G). An Eng- lish actress, who began her career as a London music-hall dancer and afterward gained popu- larity in light comedy. Among the plays in which she Ijas appeared are : The Forty Thieves (1880) ; Whittington and his Cat (1881) ; Alad- din (1881); Paul Jones (1889); Uarjoric (1890); Blue-eyed Susan (1892); In Toivn (1892); Gentleman Joe (1895).
BROTTGHTOUT, RHODA (1840-1920 ). A pop- ular English novelist. She was born in North Wales, but has spent much of her life in Oxford. Among her works, all of which are clever and entertaining, are: Cometh up as a Flower (1867) ; Not Wisely but too Well (1867) ; Red as a Rose is She (1870) ; Nancy (1873) ; Belinda (1883); Doctor Cupid (1886); Alas! (1890); Scylla or Chary odis (1895); Dear Faustina (1897) ; Foes in Law (1901) ; Lavvnia (1902) ; The Devil and the Deep Sea (1910) ; Between Two Stools (1912).
BROITSSA, broTm'a. See BBUSA.
BROTJSSAIS 3
BROUSSAIS, br<5d'sa', FRANCOIS JOSEPH VICTOB (1772-1838). A French physician. He was born at Saint-Malo, France, and was edu- cated in the Dinan Public School. He volun- teered at the outbreak of the Revolution, but ill health caused his discharge from the army. He then studied medicine under his father, who was a physician, and returned to the service with a surgeon's commission, being attached first to the army and later to the navy. In 1799 he began a course of medical study in Paris. From 1804 to 1808 he was again a sur- geon in the army, and from 1808 to 1814 he was chief physician of a division of the French army in Spain. In 1820 he was appointed professor at the military hospital of Val-de-Grace, in Paris, after serving as assistant professor. In 1830 he became professor of general pathology and therapeutics in the Faculty of Medicine in Paris and afterward was made a member of the Institute. In 1841 a statue was erected to his memory in the court